Emergency Medical Minute

Contributor: Aaron Lessen MD Educational Pearls: Can opioids cause cardiac arrest? Opioids can cause respiratory suppression and the subsequent low oxygen levels can lead to arrhythmias and eventually cardiac arrest. In 2023, 17% of out-of-hospital cardiac arrests (OHCA) were attributable to opioids. Given that this is a rising cause of cardiac arrest, should we just treat all cardiac arrest with naloxone (Narcan)? Naloxone is correlated with an increased chance of return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) Additionally, a wide variety of individuals can be exposed to opioids and therefore opioid overdose should be considered in all cases of OHCA But does naloxone improve neurologic outcomes? Yes, naloxone, especially when given early on in the resuscitation can improve neuro outcomes What is the dose? 2-4 mg IN/IV depending on access. High suspicion for opioid overdose consider going with an even higher dose such as 4-8 mg IN/IV References Orkin, A. M., & Dezfulian, C. (2024). Recognizing the fastest growing cause of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest. Resuscitation, 198, 110206. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resuscitation.2024.110206 Quinn, E., & Du Pont, D. (2024). Naloxone administration in out-of-hospital cardiac arrest: What's next?. Resuscitation, 201, 110307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resuscitation.2024.110307 Saybolt, M. D., Alter, S. M., Dos Santos, F., Calello, D. P., Rynn, K. O., Nelson, D. A., & Merlin, M. A. (2010). Naloxone in cardiac arrest with suspected opioid overdoses. Resuscitation, 81(1), 42–46. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.resuscitation.2009.09.016 Wampler D. A. (2024). Naloxone in Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest-More Than Just Opioid Reversal. JAMA network open, 7(8), e2429131. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2024.29131 Summarized by Jeffrey Olson, MS3 | Edited by Meg Joyce MS1 & Jorge Chalit, OMS3 Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/

Contributor: Aaron Lessen MD Educational Pearls: A study evaluated the patient-care impact and financial costs of holding patients in the ED, a nationwide issue Prospective, observational study of acute stroke management Conducted at a large urban, comprehensive stroke center The study evaluated patients in multiple categories:  admitted to med/surg admitted to med/surg but held in the ED admitted to the ICU Admitted to ICU but held in the ED Examined the amount of time nurses and providers spent with each patient This was analyzed in conjunction with the knowledge of each providers’ salaries and the overhead costs of the med/surg unit, ICU, and ED  Conclusions: Patients who required med/surg inpatient care but who were held in the ED resulted in a doubled daily cost $1856 for med/surg inpatient boarding vs $993 for med/surg inpatient care Patients who required ICU care but who were held in the ED also resulted in an increased daily cost, but this difference was not as large $2267 for ICU inpatient boarding vs $2165 for ICU care Holding in the ED negatively impacts patients since they receive less time from providers Holding also results in increased financial costs References Canellas MM, Jewell M, Edwards JL, Olivier D, Jun-O’Connell AH, Reznek MA. Measurement of Cost of Boarding in the Emergency Department Using Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing. Annals of emergency medicine. Published online May 1, 2024. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annemergmed.2024.04.012 Summarized by Meg Joyce, MS1 | Edited by Meg Joyce & Jorge Chalit, OMS3 Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/  

Contributor: Aaron Lessen MD Educational Pearls: Aortic injury occurs in 1.5-2% of patients who sustain blunt thoracic trauma Majority are caused by automobile collisions or motorcycle accidents Due to sudden deceleration mechanism accidents Clinical manifestations Signs of hypovolemic shock including tachycardia and hypotension, though not always present Patients may have altered mental status Imaging Widened mediastinum on chest x-ray, though not highly sensitive CT is more sensitive and specific, and signs of thoracic injury include an intimal flap, aortic wall outpouching, and aortic contour abnormalities In hemodynamically unstable or otherwise unfit for CT patients, transesophageal echocardiogram may be used Four types of aortic injury (in order of ascending severity) I: Intimal tear or flap II: Intramural hematoma III: Pseudoaneurysm IV: Rupture Management Hemodynamically unstable: immediate OR for exploratory laparotomy and repair Hemodynamically stable: heart rate and blood pressure control with beta-blockers Minor injuries are treated with observation and hemodynamic control Severe injuries may receive surgical management Some patients benefit from delayed repair An endovascular aortic graft is a surgical option Mortality 80-85% of patients die before hospital arrival 50% of patients that make it to the hospital do not survive References Fox N, Schwartz D, Salazar JH, et al. Evaluation and management of blunt traumatic aortic injury: a practice management guideline from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma [published correction appears in J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2015 Feb;78(2):447]. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2015;78(1):136-146. doi:10.1097/TA.0000000000000470 Lee WA, Matsumura JS, Mitchell RS, et al. Endovascular repair of traumatic thoracic aortic injury: clinical practice guidelines of the Society for Vascular Surgery. J Vasc Surg. 2011;53(1):187-192. doi:10.1016/j.jvs.2010.08.027 Osgood MJ, Heck JM, Rellinger EJ, et al. Natural history of grade I-II blunt traumatic aortic injury. J Vasc Surg. 2014;59(2):334-341. doi:10.1016/j.jvs.2013.09.007 Osman A, Fong CP, Wahab SFA, Panebianco N, Teran F. Transesophageal Echocardiography at the Golden Hour: Identification of Blunt Traumatic Aortic Injuries in the Emergency Department. J Emerg Med. 2020;59(3):418-423. doi:10.1016/j.jemermed.2020.05.003 Steenburg SD, Ravenel JG, Ikonomidis JS, Schönholz C, Reeves S. Acute traumatic aortic injury: imaging evaluation and management. Radiology. 2008;248(3):748-762. doi:10.1148/radiol.2483071416 Summarized by Jorge Chalit, OMS3 | Edited by Meg Joyce & Jorge Chalit Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/  

Laboring Under Pressure Episode 4: Obstetric Emergency in South Africa with Dr. Meghan Hurley Contributors: Meghan Hurley MD, Travis Barlock MD, Jeffrey Olson MS3 Show Pearls Map of South Africa Referenced South Africa Geography Lesson There is a big disparity between Cape Town and its neighbor Khayelitsha. Cape Town is the legislative capital and economic hub of South Africa, known for its infrastructure, tourist attractions, and developed urban areas. Khayelitsha Township is a large informal settlement on the outskirts of Cape Town, with limited infrastructure and services compared to the city center. Many residents live in informal housing. This disparity is the lasting effect of how land was divided up and populations were moved around during Apartheid. Apartheid was a policy of segregation that lasted from 1948 to 1994. How does medical education work in South Africa? Medical education in South Africa typically follows a 6-year undergraduate program directly after high school Registrars our the equivalent of Resident in America. They are graduated doctors who work in hospitals under the supervision of senior doctors as they progress toward becoming specialists. Pearls from the case and the discussion afterward Whole blood from a draw can be used instead of urine on a POC pregnancy test. Wait a little bit longer before making a determination because blood is more viscous. Although the casettes are not approved for whole blood several studies have shown this to be efficacious. Free fluid in the abdomen and a pregnancy of unknown location is a rupture ectopic until proven otherwise. Appendicitis can present on the left side. Most commonly from an extra appendix, but can also result from situs inversus or mid-gut malrotation. This presentation can also be the result of an atypically large appendix. Fever is common in appendicitis (~40%) and becomes less common with older patients. Don’t be falsely reassured by a normal hemoglobin in acute bleeding because patients bleed whole blood and the hemoglobin concentration is not affected. These patients should be resuscitated with whole blood. Give rhesus factor negative blood to female patients of childbearing age to prevent them from developing antibodies to the rhesus factor which can lead to Rh disease in future pregnancies. Rhogam can be given in cases of ruptured ectopic pregnancies to lower the risk of alloimmunization. Blood transfusions carry the risk of lung and heart injury from the extra volume. The treatment for this condition is to diurese the patient. Other topics discussed include the complications of working in a South African township hospital at night, the epidemiology of burns, and the importance of global health.   References Akbulut S, Ulku A, Senol A, Tas M, Yagmur Y. Left-sided appendicitis: review of 95 published cases and a case report. World J Gastroenterol. 2010 Nov 28;16(44):5598-602. doi: 10.3748/wjg.v16.i44.5598. PMID: 21105193; PMCID: PMC2992678. Barash, J. H., Buchanan, E. M., & Hillson, C. (2014). Diagnosis and management of ectopic pregnancy. American family physician, 90(1), 34–40. Fromm C, Likourezos A, Haines L, Khan AN, Williams J, Berezow J. Substituting whole blood for urine in a bedside pregnancy test. J Emerg Med. 2012 Sep;43(3):478-82. doi: 10.1016/j.jemermed.2011.05.028. Epub 2011 Aug 27. PMID: 21875776. Moris, D., Paulson, E. K., & Pappas, T. N. (2021). Diagnosis and Management of Acute Appendicitis in Adults: A Review. JAMA, 326(22), 2299–2311. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2021.20502 Sowder AM, Yarbrough ML, Nerenz RD, Mitsios JV, Mortensen R, Gronowski AM, Grenache DG. Analytical performance evaluation of the i-STAT Total β-human chorionic gonadotropin immunoassay. Clin Chim Acta. 2015 Jun 15;446:165-70. doi: 10.1016/j.cca.2015.04.025. Epub 2015 Apr 25. PMID: 25916696.   Produced by Jeffrey Olson, MS3 | Edited by Jeffrey Olson and Jorge Chalit, OMSIII

Contributor: Taylor Lynch, MD Educational Pearls: What is neutropenic fever? Specific type of fever that is seen in cancer patients and other patients with impaired immune systems These patients are highly susceptible to infection Typically occurs 7-10 days after the last chemotherapy dose, this is when the immune system is the weakest It is useful to know the specific type of malignancy. For example, heme malignancies (ALL, AML, etc.) have more intense chemo and are at higher risk of neutropenic fever To qualify as a neutropenic fever, a patient must have one recorded temperature greater than 38.3 degrees C or be over 38 degrees C for one hour. The severity of the neutropenic fever is established by the absolute neutrophil count. Abs neutrophil count under 1500 is mild, less than 1000 is moderate, less than 500 is severe. Also look at monocytes (cell that becomes a macrophage). Less than 200 is very concerning What is the workup and treatment? Obtain a panculture (culture blood from both arms and all indwelling lines), obtain urine culture, and get a chest x-ray. Do not preform a rectal exam or obtain a rectal core temperature. This could cause bacteremia. Treat with Cefepime (broad range and includes pseudomonas but not MRSA). If there is concern for MRSA add vancomycin. Admit with Neutropenic precautions (gowns, gloves, mask, positive pressure room) References Peseski, A. M., McClean, M., Green, S. D., Beeler, C., & Konig, H. (2021). Management of fever and neutropenia in the adult patient with acute myeloid leukemia. Expert review of anti-infective therapy, 19(3), 359–378. https://doi.org/10.1080/14787210.2020.1820863 Zimmer, A. J., & Freifeld, A. G. (2019). Optimal Management of Neutropenic Fever in Patients With Cancer. Journal of oncology practice, 15(1), 19–24. https://doi.org/10.1200/JOP.18.00269 Summarized by Jeffrey Olson, MS3 | Edited by Meg Joyce & Jorge Chalit, OMS3  

Contributor: Jorge Chalit-Hernandez, OMS3 Typically presents with biliary colic Right upper quadrant abdominal pain lasting more than 30 minutes and subsiding over several hours Often associated with fatty meals but not always Must rule out other causes of pain Peptic ulcer disease - typically presents with epigastric pain Pancreatitis - pain that radiates to the back or family history of pancreatitis Laboratory workup  LFTs including ALT, AST, and alkaline phosphatase are within the reference range Lipase and amylase within the reference range Imaging workup RUQ ultrasound is unremarkable Upper endoscopy with ultrasound can help rule out peptic ulcer disease and small stones HIDA scan may show a reduced gallbladder ejection fraction below 30-35% or it may be normal  Opiates may give false-positive results Opiates can sometimes make biliary colic worse due to their contractile effect on the sphincter of Oddi Some patients may benefit from surgical intervention i.e. cholecystectomy Classic biliary-type pain (best predictor of response to cholecystectomy) Pain for > 3 months duration Positive HIDA scan References Alhayo S, Eslick GD, Cox MR. Cholescintigraphy may have a role in selecting patients with biliary dyskinesia for cholecystectomy: a systematic review. ANZ J Surg. 2020;90(9):1647-1652. doi:10.1111/ans.16003 Arshi J, Layfield LJ, Esebua M. Mast cell infiltration and activation in the gallbladder wall: Implications for the pathogenesis of functional gallbladder disorder in adult patients. Ann Diagn Pathol. 2021;54:151798. doi:10.1016/j.anndiagpath.2021.151798 Carr JA, Walls J, Bryan LJ, Snider DL. The treatment of gallbladder dyskinesia based upon symptoms: results of a 2-year, prospective, nonrandomized, concurrent cohort study. Surg Laparosc Endosc Percutan Tech. 2009;19(3):222-226. doi:10.1097/SLE.0b013e3181a74690 Joehl RJ, Koch KL, Nahrwold DL. Opioid drugs cause bile duct obstruction during hepatobiliary scans. Am J Surg. 1984;147(1):134-138. doi:10.1016/0002-9610(84)90047-3 Mahid SS, Jafri NS, Brangers BC, Minor KS, Hornung CA, Galandiuk S. Meta-analysis of cholecystectomy in symptomatic patients with positive hepatobiliary iminodiacetic acid scan results without gallstones. Arch Surg. 2009;144(2):180-187. doi:10.1001/archsurg.2008.543 Summarized & Edited by Jorge Chalit, OMS3 Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/  

Contributor: Taylor Lynch MD Supraventricular tachycardias (SVTs) arise above the bundle of His The term SVT includes AV nodal reentrant tachycardia (AVNRT), atrioventricular reentrant tachycardia (AVRT), atrial tachycardia, atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter, and multifocal atrial tachycardia  AVNRT is the most common form of SVT Paroxysmal Spontaneous or provoked by exertion, coffee, alcohol, or thyroid disease More common in women (3:1 women:men ratio) HR 160-240 Narrow complex with a normal QRS Unstable patients receive synchronized cardioversion at 0.5-1 J/kg Valsalva maneuver is attempted before pharmaceutical interventions Increases vagal tone at the AV node to slow conduction and prolongs its refractory period to normalize the conduction Traditionally, patients are asked to bear down, but this only works in 17% of patients REVERT trial assessed a modified valsalva that worked in 43% of patients Adenosine Slows conduction at the AV node by activating potassium channels and inhibiting calcium influx Extremely uncomfortable for most patients Not commonly used anymore Nondihydropyridine calcium-channel blockers are preferred A 2009 RCT investigated low-infusion CCBs compared with adenosine bolus The study found a conversion rate of 98% in the CCB group vs. adenosine group at 86.5% The main adverse effect of CCB is hypotension, which a slow infusion rate can mitigate Diltiazem dose is 0.25 mg/kg/2min and repeat at 0.35 mg/kg/15 minutes or slow infusion at 2.5 mg/min up to a conversion or 50 mg total References 1. Appelboam A, Reuben A, Mann C, et al. Postural modification to the standard Valsalva manoeuvre for emergency treatment of supraventricular tachycardias (REVERT): A randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2015;386(10005):1747-1753. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(15)61485-4 Belz MK, Stambler BS, Wood MA, Pherson C, Ellenbogen KA. Effects of enhanced parasympathetic tone on atrioventricular nodal conduction during atrioventricular nodal reentrant tachycardia. Am J Cardiol. 1997;80(7):878-882. doi:10.1016/s0002-9149(97)00539-0 Lim SH, Anantharaman V, Teo WS, Chan YH. Slow infusion of calcium channel blockers compared with intravenous adenosine in the emergency treatment of supraventricular tachycardia. Resuscitation. 2009;80(5):523-528. doi:10.1016/j.resuscitation.2009.01.017 Page RL, Joglar JA, Caldwell MA, et al. 2015 ACC/AHA/HRS Guideline for the Management of Adult Patients With Supraventricular Tachycardia: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Clinical Practice Guidelines and the Heart Rhythm Society [published correction appears in Circulation. 2016 Sep 13;134(11):e234-5. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000000448]. Circulation. 2016;133(14):e506-e574. doi:10.1161/CIR.0000000000000311 Summarized & Edited by Jorge Chalit, OMS3 Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/  

Contributor: Aaron Lessen, MD Educational Pearls: Pediatric case study where the child’s tongue was stuck in the opening of a hard plastic drink lid Entrapment restricts circulation which causes fluid to build and the tongue becomes more edematous with time There is a risk of ischemia with prolonged entrapment Initially tried 2% viscous lidocaine for analgesia and lubricant The ER recognized that this mucosal, edematous tongue could benefit from the trick for ostomies and rectal prolapses → table sugar! Sugar granules absorb water which decreases tissue edema This option avoids sedation and aggressive treatment References A Young Girl with Tongue Swelling Jarjour, Jane et al. Annals of Emergency Medicine, Volume 84, Issue 3, 317 - 318 Summarized by Meg Joyce, MS1 | Edited by Meg Joyce & Jorge Chalit, OMS3 Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/  

Contributor: Megan Hurley, MD Educational Pearls: Fevers Tylenol Up until 20 weeks NSAIDs are ok but after 20 weeks they are contraindicated Can limit the amount of amniotic fluid produced Can lead to growth restriction Can cause premature closure of the ductus arteriosus Cough Cough drops Humidifier Guafenesine and dextromethorphan (Mucinex) is not well studied but is probably ok with caution in certain circumstances such as post-tussive emesis causing poor PO intake and weight loss Congestion Flonase (Fluticasone nasal spray) Nasal rinses Humidifier 1st generation anti-histamines (Diphenhydramine, Doxylamine, etc.) However, these tend to have more side effects such as fatigue, drowsiness, and dizziness Concider switching to a 2nd generation (Cetirizine, Loratidine, etc.) during the day Disease specific treatments Flu (A and B) gets tamiflu (Oseltamivir) Covid gets paxlovid (Nirmatrelvir/ritonavir) Antibiotics for suspected pneumonia Additional recommendations Elevating the head of bed Nasal strips Stay well hydrated Tea Ice chips Echinacea Zinc Rest Avoid NSAIDs Pseudophedrine Afrin (Oxymetazoline) Combined meds in general References Antonucci, R., Zaffanello, M., Puxeddu, E., Porcella, A., Cuzzolin, L., Pilloni, M. D., & Fanos, V. (2012). Use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in pregnancy: impact on the fetus and newborn. Current drug metabolism, 13(4), 474–490. https://doi.org/10.2174/138920012800166607 Black, E., Khor, K. E., Kennedy, D., Chutatape, A., Sharma, S., Vancaillie, T., & Demirkol, A. (2019). Medication Use and Pain Management in Pregnancy: A Critical Review. Pain practice : the official journal of World Institute of Pain, 19(8), 875–899. https://doi.org/10.1111/papr.12814 D'Ambrosio, V., Vena, F., Scopelliti, A., D'Aniello, D., Savastano, G., Brunelli, R., & Giancotti, A. (2023). Use of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs in pregnancy and oligohydramnios: a review. The journal of maternal-fetal & neonatal medicine : the official journal of the European Association of Perinatal Medicine, the Federation of Asia and Oceania Perinatal Societies, the International Society of Perinatal Obstetricians, 36(2), 2253956. https://doi.org/10.1080/14767058.2023.2253956 Summarized by Jeffrey Olson MS3 | Edited by Meg Joyce, MS1 & Jorge Chalit, OMS3  

Contributor: Travis Barlock MD Educational Pearls: Assessment of head and neck vascular injury due to blunt trauma Symptomatic patients require screening head and neck CT angiography EAST guidelines include the following criteria for a screening CT angiography in blunt head trauma: Unexplained neurological deficits Arterial nosebleed GCS < 6 Petrous bone fracture Cervical spine fracture Any size fracture through the transverse foramen LeFort fractures type II or type III EAST guidelines include a grading scale for vascular injury: Grade I: Luminal irregularity or dissection with <25% luminal narrowing Grade II: Dissection or intramural hematoma with >25% luminal narrowing, intraluminal thrombus, or raised intimal flap Grade III: Pseudoaneurysm Grade IV: Occlusion Grade V: Transection with free extravasation References Bensch FV, Varjonen EA, Pyhältö TT, Koskinen SK. Augmenting Denver criteria yields increased BCVI detection, with screening showing markedly increased risk for subsequent ischemic stroke. Emerg Radiol. 2019;26(4):365-372. doi:10.1007/s10140-019-01677-0 Biffl WL, Moore EE, Offner PJ, et al. Optimizing screening for blunt cerebrovascular injuries. Am J Surg. 1999;178(6):517-522. doi:10.1016/s0002-9610(99)00245-7 Kim DY, Biffl W, Bokhari F, et al. Evaluation and management of blunt cerebrovascular injury: A practice management guideline from the Eastern Association for the Surgery of Trauma. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. 2020;88(6):875-887. doi:10.1097/TA.0000000000002668 Summarized & Edited by Jorge Chalit, OMS3 Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/  

Contributor: Aaron Lessen, MD Educational Pearls: Hemothorax: blood in the pleural cavity, most commonly due to chest trauma Treatment: thoracostomy tube for blood drainage helps to avoid clotting, scarring, and infection A recent study looked at patients with hemothorax who either received or did not receive thoracic irrigation with saline Evaluated incidence of secondary intervention, such as video-assisted thoracoscopic surgery (VATS), for persistent hemothorax Patients who received irrigation had a slight decrease in secondary intervention frequency Multi-center study - all patients who had the irrigation procedure were at two centers Study limitation: variability in approaches at each location could be a confounder Technique that could potentially prevent future complications References Carver TW, Berndtson AE, McNickle AG, et al. Thoracic irrigation for prevention of secondary intervention after thoracostomy tube drainage for hemothorax: A Western Trauma Association multi-center study. J Trauma Acute Care Surg. Published online May 20, 2024. doi:10.1097/TA.0000000000004364 Yi JH, Liu HB, Zhang M, et al. Management of traumatic hemothorax by closed thoracic drainage using a central venous catheter. J Zhejiang Univ Sci B. 2012;13(1):43-48. doi:10.1631/jzus.B1100161 Summarized by Meg Joyce, MS | Edited by Meg Joyce & Jorge Chalit, OMS3 Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/

Contributor: Taylor Lynch, MD Educational Pearls: When it comes to hypoglycemia, the age dictates possible causes Neonate: Hormonal deficiency Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (21-hydroxylase deficiency, 11β-hydroxylase deficiency) Primary or Secondary Adrenal Insufficiency leading to cortisol deficiency  Hypopituitarism Inborn errors of metabolism Systemic infection (Under 30 days old should trigger a full infectious workup) Toddler Accidental ingestions Sulfonylureas such as glipizide or glyburide Older children Addison’s Disease (Hypocortisolism) Accidential or intentional ingestions Exogenous insulin How is it diagnosed? Child or infant Glucose <60 Newborn Glucose <45 and symptomatic or glucose <35 and asymptomatic Treatment Awake: oral glucose Altered: IV glucose Rule of 50’s. The dose you give times the concentration should equal 50 Neonate to 2 months get 5 mg/kg of D10W (5*10=50) 2 months to 8 years old get 2 mg/kg of D25W (2*25=50) Over 8 gets 1 mg/kg of D50W (1*50=50) Bonus fact: Rough estimate of weight for a child is 2*patients age plus 8 Recheck sugar every 15 minutes If they stay hypoglycemic give another bolus and consider starting a drip at 1.5 maintenance dose of D10NS. If you don’t have an IV you can consider glucagon at 0.03 mg/kg IM, although you might be better off trying glucose gel buccally. If standard therapy still fails you can give hydrocortisone 25 mg IV for neonates and infants 50 mg IV for toddlers and smaller school aged children 100 mg for anyone older than that How do you test for exogenous insulin? Check a c-peptide which would be low if a patient is taking exogenous insulin References Lang, T. F., & Hussain, K. (2014). Pediatric hypoglycemia. Advances in clinical chemistry, 63, 211–245. https://doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-800094-6.00006-6 Lee, S. C., Baranowski, E. S., Sakremath, R., Saraff, V., & Mohamed, Z. (2023). Hypoglycaemia in adrenal insufficiency. Frontiers in endocrinology, 14, 1198519. https://doi.org/10.3389/fendo.2023.1198519 Thompson-Branch, A., & Havranek, T. (2017). Neonatal Hypoglycemia. Pediatrics in review, 38(4), 147–157. https://doi.org/10.1542/pir.2016-0063 Summarized by Jeffrey Olson, MS3 | Edited by Meg Joyce, MS1 & Jorge Chalit, OMS3 Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/  

Contributor: Kiersten Williams MD, Travis Barlock MD, Jeffrey Olson MS3 Show Pearls Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are one of the leading causes of maternal mortality worldwide. Hypertension (HTN) complicates 2-8% of pregnancies The definition of HTN in pregnancy is a systolic >140 or diastolic >90, measured 4 hours apart There is a range of HTN disorders Chronic HTN which could have superimposed preeclampsia (preE) on top Gestational HTN in which there are no lab abnormalities PreE w/o severe features Protein in urine Urine protein >300 mg in 24 hours Urine Protein to Creatinine ratio of .3 +2 Protein on urine dipstick PreE w/ severe features Systolics above 160 mmHg Diastolics above 110 mmHg Headache, especially not going away with meds, or different than previous headaches Visual changes, anything that lasts more than a few minutes RUQ pain, which could present as heartburn Pulmonary edema Low platelets, if <150 perk up ears, <100 definitely look into Renal insufficiency, creatinine 1.1 or higher or doubling of baseline Impaired liver function Note: Hemoconcentration and LDH >600 are not diagnostic but worth paying attention to Treatment Labetalol, IV Avoid in bradycardia, asthma, or myocardial disease Quick up titrate, with dosing regimens such as 20-20-40 or 20-40-80 (mg) Hydralazine, IV 5 mg starting, then another 5 mg then 10 mg if not working Nifedipine, Oral Can cause a headache Goal is not to normalize BP but bring it down slowly How to give magnesium Start with 6 g or 4 g over 20 minutes if the patient is small or has bad kidney function Follow with 2 g per hour or 1 g per hour Don’t give in myasthenia gravis What should you do if the patient progresses to eclampsia (seizures) Magnesium is the best drug Can use phenytoin or benzos IV as an alternate Diazepam is available PR which is a good option if you don’t have IV access IM magnesium is doable but painful, mix with lidocaine and split dose between the butt cheeks Facts about post-partum PreE 20% of women will have HTN post-partum Most resolve by 6 weeks If it lingers past 6 months this is chronic HTN If the patient has severe features (see above) they desevere 24 hours on magnesium while being monitored on the L&D floor Post-partum is the most common time for strokes Providers can be much more aggressive with HTN treatment because the fetus is no longer being exposed Enalapril is safe in breast feeding Some patients might need to give up breast feeding to be on even more aggressive HTN therapy Are NSAIDs safe while breastfeeding? Motrin is pretty safe Pulm edema is a risk, be careful with fluids Last pearl: Put pregnant patients in left or right lateral decubitus while in ER or put a folded towel under their hip to help with venous return which can also help with nausea   References Metoki, H., Iwama, N., Hamada, H., Satoh, M., Murakami, T., Ishikuro, M., & Obara, T. (2022). Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy: definition, management, and out-of-office blood pressure measurement. Hypertension research : official journal of the Japanese Society of Hypertension, 45(8), 1298–1309. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41440-022-00965-6 Rana, S., Lemoine, E., Granger, J. P., & Karumanchi, S. A. (2019). Preeclampsia: Pathophysiology, Challenges, and Perspectives. Circulation research, 124(7), 1094–1112. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCRESAHA.118.313276 Reed, B. (2020, May 2). ‘They didn’t listen to me’: Amber Rose Isaac tweeted about her death before dying in childbirth. The Guardian. https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2020/may/02/amber-rose-isaac-new-york-childbirth-death Reisner, S. H., Eisenberg, N. H., Stahl, B., & Hauser, G. J. (1983). Maternal medications and breast-feeding. Developmental pharmacology and therapeutics, 6(5), 285–304. https://doi.org/10.1159/000457330 Wilkerson, R. G., & Ogunbodede, A. C. (2019). Hypertensive Disorders of Pregnancy. Emergency medicine clinics of North America, 37(2), 301–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.emc.2019.01.008 Wu, P., Green, M., & Myers, J. E. (2023). Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. BMJ (Clinical research ed.), 381, e071653. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj-2022-071653   Produced by Jeffrey Olson, MS3 | Edited by Jeffrey Olson and Jorge Chalit, OMSIII

Contributor: Sean Fox, MD Educational Pearls: Newborns may lose up to 10% of their birth weight in the first week of life Weight loss is greatest in exclusively breastfed infants Should regain birth weight by age 2 weeks Newborns should gain an average of 30g (1 oz) per day in the first 3 months of life Some will gain more and some will gain less Infants double their birth weight by 6 months of life and triple their weight by 12 months A 1-year-old should weigh on average 10 kg (22 lbs) A 3-year-old should weigh on average 15 kg (33 lbs) 2-year-olds are between 10-15 kg on average Weight assessment can help determine causes of forceful vomiting Not all “projectile” vomiting is due to pyloric stenosis Some infants may experience vigorous vomiting from overfeeding Weight estimates can also provide information for quick decisions on medical management for children coming via EMS  Helps to prepare medications and dosages based on predicted average weight References Crossland DS, Richmond S, Hudson M, Smith K, Abu-Harb M. Weight change in the term baby in the first 2 weeks of life. Acta Paediatr. 2008;97(4):425-429. doi:10.1111/j.1651-2227.2008.00685.x Grummer-Strawn LM, Reinold C, Krebs NF; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC). Use of World Health Organization and CDC growth charts for children aged 0-59 months in the United States [published correction appears in MMWR Recomm Rep. 2010 Sep 17;59(36):1184]. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2010;59(RR-9):1-15. Macdonald PD, Ross SR, Grant L, Young D. Neonatal weight loss in breast and formula fed infants. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed. 2003;88(6):F472-F476. doi:10.1136/fn.88.6.f472 Paul IM, Schaefer EW, Miller JR, et al. Weight Change Nomograms for the First Month After Birth. Pediatrics. 2016;138(6):e20162625. doi:10.1542/peds.2016-2625 Summarized & Edited by Jorge Chalit, OMS3 Special thanks to the Carolinas Medical Center for their contribution to this episode Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/

Contributor: Travis Barlock, MD Educational Pearls: SVT: supraventricular tachycardia Pharmacotherapy for SVT includes drugs that block the AV node, such as adenosine EKG criteria before adenosine administration in SVT Regular rhythm Monomorphic: ​​all QRS complexes are identical If the EKG is polymorphic, with QRS complexes displaying changing morphologies, it is unsafe to administer adenosine  Adenosine can worsen polymorphic VTach and lead to VFib References Ganz, Leonard I., and Peter L. Friedman. “Supraventricular Tachycardia.” New England Journal of Medicine, vol. 332, no. 3, 19 Jan. 1995, pp. 162–173, https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm199501193320307. Smith JR, Goldberger JJ, Kadish AH. Adenosine induced polymorphic ventricular tachycardia in adults without structural heart disease. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 1997;20(3 Pt 1):743-745. doi:10.1111/j.1540-8159.1997.tb03897.x Viskin, Sami, et al. “Polymorphic Ventricular Tachycardia: Terminology, Mechanism, Diagnosis, and Emergency Therapy.” Circulation, vol. 144, no. 10, 7 Sept. 2021, pp. 823–839, https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.121.055783. Summarized by Meg Joyce, MS1 | Edited by Meg Joyce & Jorge Chalit, OMS3 Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/  

Contributor: Aaron Lessen, MD Educational Pearls: How does an automated blood pressure cuff work? Automated blood pressure cuffs work differently than taking a manual blood pressure. While taking a manual blood pressure, one typically listens for Korotkoff sounds (turbulent flow) while slowly deflating the cuff. An automatic blood pressure cuff only senses the pressure in the cuff itself and specifically pays attention to oscillations in the pressure caused by when the pressure of the cuff is between the systolic (heart squeezing) and diastolic (heart relaxed) pressures. These oscillations are at a maximum when the pressure in the cuff matches the mean arterial pressure (MAP) and therefore the machines are most accurate at reporting the MAP. The machines then use the MAP and other information about the oscillations to estimate the systolic and diastolic pressures, which are less accurate. What should you do if you need more accurate systolic and diastolic blood pressures? Take a manual blood pressure. Get an arterial-line (a-line), which provides continuous data for the blood pressure at the end of a catheter. What happens if the cuff is too big or too small for the patient? If the cuff is too small it will overestimate the pressure. If the cuff is too large it will underestimate the pressure. What should you do if the cuff cycles a bunch of times before reporting a blood pressure? It probably isn’t very accurate so consider another method. Bonus fact! The MAP is not directly in the middle of the systolic and diastolic pressures but is weighted towards the diastolic pressure. The MAP can be calculated by adding two-thirds of the diastolic pressure to one third of the systolic pressure. For example if the BP is 120/90 the MAP is 100 mmHg. References Benmira, A., Perez-Martin, A., Schuster, I., Aichoun, I., Coudray, S., Bereksi-Reguig, F., & Dauzat, M. (2016). From Korotkoff and Marey to automatic non-invasive oscillometric blood pressure measurement: does easiness come with reliability?. Expert review of medical devices, 13(2), 179–189. https://doi.org/10.1586/17434440.2016.1128821 Liu, J., Li, Y., Li, J., Zheng, D., & Liu, C. (2022). Sources of automatic office blood pressure measurement error: a systematic review. Physiological measurement, 43(9), 10.1088/1361-6579/ac890e. https://doi.org/10.1088/1361-6579/ac890e Vilaplana J. M. (2006). Blood pressure measurement. Journal of renal care, 32(4), 210–213. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1755-6686.2006.tb00025.x Summarized by Jeffrey Olson, MS3 | Edited by Meg Joyce, MS1 & Jorge Chalit, OMS3 Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/  

Contributor: Megan Hurley, MD Educational Pearls:  Heat cramps Occur due to electrolyte disturbances Most common electrolyte abnormalities are hyponatremia and hypokalemia Heat edema Caused by vasodilation with pooling of interstitial fluid in the extremities Heat rash (miliaria) Common in newborns and elderly Due to accumulation of sweat beneath eccrine ducts Heat syncope Lightheadedness, hypotension, and/or syncope in patients with peripheral vasodilation due to heat exposure Treatment is removal from the heat source and rehydration (IV fluids or Gatorade) Heat exhaustion Patients have elevated body temperature (greater than 38º C but less than 40º C) Symptoms include nausea, tachycardia, headache, sweating, and others Normal mental status or mild confusion that improves with cooling Treatment is removal from the heat source and hydration Classic heat stroke From prolonged exposure to heat Defined as a core body temperature > 40.5º C, though not required for diagnosis or treatment Presentation is similar to heat exhaustion with the addition of neurological deficits including ataxia Patients present “dry” Exertional heat stroke Prolonged exposure to heat during exercise Similar to classic heat stroke but the patients present “wet” due to antecedent treatment in ice baths or other field treatments Management of heat-related illnesses includes: Cooling Rehydration Evaluation of electrolytes Antipyretics are not helpful because heat-induced illnesses are not due to hypothalamic dysregulation References Casa DJ, McDermott BP, Lee EC, et al. Cold water immersion: the gold standard for exertional heatstroke treatment. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2007; 35:141. Ebi KL, Capon A, Berry P, et al. Hot weather and heat extremes: health risks. Lancet 2021; 398:698. Epstein Y, Yanovich R. Heatstroke. N Engl J Med 2019; 380:2449. Gardner JW, JA K. Clinical diagnosis, management, and surveillance of exertional heat illness. In: Textbook of Military Medicine, Zajitchuk R (Ed), Army Medical Center Borden Institute, Washington, DC 2001. Khosla R, Guntupalli KK. Heat-related illnesses. Crit Care Clin 1999; 15:251. Lipman GS, Gaudio FG, Eifling KP, et al. Wilderness Medical Society Clinical Practice Guidelines for the Prevention and Treatment of Heat Illness: 2019 Update. Wilderness Environ Med 2019; 30:S33. Summarized by Jorge Chalit, OMSIII | Edited by Meg Joyce, MS1 Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/

Contributor: Taylor Lynch, MD Educational Pearls: What is Central Cord Syndrome (CCS)? Incomplete spinal cord injury caused by trauma that compresses the center of the cord More common in hyperextension injuries like falling and hitting the chin Usually happens only in individuals with preexisting neck and spinal cord conditions like cervical spondylosis (age-related wear and tear of the cervical spine) Anatomy of spinal cord Motor tracts The signals the brain sends for the muscles to move travel in the corticospinal tracts of the spinal cord The tracts that control the upper limbs are more central than the ones that control the lower limbs The tracts that control the hands are more central than the ones that control the upper arm/shoulder Fine touch, vibration, and proprioception (body position) tracts These sensations travel in separate tracts in the spinal cord than the sensation of pain and temperature Their pathway is called the dorsal column-medial lemniscus (DCML) pathway This information travels in the most posterior aspect of the spinal cord Pain, crude touch, pressure, and temperature tracts These sensations travel in the spinothalamic tract, which is more centrally located These signals also cross one side of the body to the other within the spinal cord near the level that they enter How does this anatomy affect the presentation of CCS? Patients typically experience more pronounced weakness or paralysis in their upper extremities as compared to their lower extremities with their hands being weaker than more proximal muscle groups Sensation of pain, crude touch, pressure, and temperature are much morelikely to be diminished while the sensation of fine touch, vibration, and proprioception are spared What happens with reflexes? Deep tendon reflexes become exaggerated in CCS This is because the disruption in the corticospinal tract removes inhibitory control over reflex arcs What happens to bladder control? The neural signals that coordinate bladder emptying are disrupted, therefore patients can present with urinary retention and/or urge incontinence What is a Babinski’s Sign? When the sole of the foot is stimulated a normal response in adults is for the toes to flex downward (plantar flexion) If there is an upper motor neuron injury like in CCS, the toes will flex upwards (dorsiflexion) How is CCS diagnosed? CCS is mostly a clinical diagnosis These patient also need an MRI to see the extent of the damage which will show increased signal intensity within the central part of the spinal cord on T2-weighted images How is CCS treated? Strict c-spine precautions Neurogenic shock precautions. Maintain a mean arterial pressure (MAP) of 85-90 to ensure profusion of the spinal cord Levophed (norepinephrine bitartrate) and/or phenylephrine can be used to support their blood pressure to support spinal perfusion Consider intubation for injuries above C5 (C3, 4, and 5 keep the diaphragm alive) Consult neurosurgery for possible decompression surgery Physical Therapy References Avila, M. J., & Hurlbert, R. J. (2021). Central Cord Syndrome Redefined. Neurosurgery clinics of North America, 32(3), 353–363. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nec.2021.03.007 Brooks N. P. (2017). Central Cord Syndrome. Neurosurgery clinics of North America, 28(1), 41–47. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nec.2016.08.002 Engel-Haber, E., Snider, B., & Kirshblum, S. (2023). Central cord syndrome definitions, variations and limitations. Spinal cord, 61(11), 579–586. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41393-023-00894-2 Summarized by Jeffrey Olson, MS3 | Edited by Jorge Chalit, OMS3 Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/  

Contributor: Megan Hurley, MD Educational Pearls: Initial assessment of patients with severe burn injuries begins with ABCs  Airway: consider inhalation injury Breathing: circumferential burns of the trunk region can reduce respiratory muscle movement Circulation: circumferential burns compromise circulation Exposure: Important to assess the affected surface area Escharotomy: emergency procedure to release the tourniquet-ing effects of the eschar  Differs from a fasciotomy in that it does not breach the deep fascial layer PEEP = positive end-expiratory pressure The positive pressure remaining in the airway after exhalation Keeps airway pressure higher than atmospheric pressure Common formulas for initial fluid rate in burn shock resuscitation Parkland formula: 4 mL/kg body weight/% TBSA burns (lactated Ringer's solution) Modified Brooke formula: 2 mL/kg/% (also lactated Ringer's solution) Less fluid = lower risk of intra-abdominal compartment syndrome Lactated Ringer’s solution is preferred over normal saline in burn injuries Normal saline is avoided in large quantities due to the possibility of it leading to hyperchloremic acidosis References Acosta P, Santisbon E, Varon J. “The Use of Positive End-Expiratory Pressure in Mechanical Ventilation.” Critical Care Clinics. 2007;23(2):251-261. doi:10.1016/j.ccc.2006.12.012  Orgill DP, Piccolo N. Escharotomy and decompressive therapies in burns. J Burn Care Res. 2009;30(5):759-768. doi:10.1097/BCR.0b013e3181b47cd3  Snell JA, Loh NH, Mahambrey T, Shokrollahi K. Clinical review: the critical care management of the burn patient. Crit Care. 2013;17(5):241. Published 2013 Oct 7. doi:10.1186/cc12706 Summarized by Meg Joyce, MS1 | Edited by Meg Joyce & Jorge Chalit Donate: https://emergencymedicalminute.org/donate/

Contributor: Taylor Lynch, MD Educational Pearls: What is NMS? Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome Caused by anti-dopamine medication or rapid withdrawal of pro-dopamenergic medications Mechanism is poorly understood Life threatening What medications can cause it? Typical antipsychotics Haloperidol, chlorpromazine, prochlorperazine, fluphenazine, trifluoperazine Atypical antipsychotics Less risk Risperidone, clozapine, quetiapine, olanzapine, aripiprazole, ziprasidone Anti-emetic agents with anti dopamine activity Metoclopramide, promethazine, haloperidol Not ondansetron Abrupt withdrawal of levodopa How does it present? Slowly over 1-3 days (unlike serotonin syndrome which has a more acute onset) Altered mental status, 82% of patients, typically agitated delirium with confusion Peripheral muscle rigidity and decreased reflexes. AKA lead pipe rigidity. (As opposed to clonus and hyperreflexia in serotonin syndrome) Hyperthermia (>38C seen in 87% of patients) Can also have tachycardia, labile blood pressures, tachypnea, and tremor How is it diagnosed? Clinical diagnosis, focus on the timing of symptoms No confirmatory lab test but can see possible elevated CK levels and WBC of 10-40k with a left shift What else might be on the differential? Sepsis CNS infections Heat stroke Agitated delirium Status eptilepticus Drug induced extrapyramidal symptoms Serotonin syndrome Malignant hyperthermia What is the treatment? Start with ABC’s Stop all anti-dopaminergic meds and restart pro-dopamine meds if recently stopped Maintain urine output with IV fluids if needed to avoid rhabdomyolysis Active or passive cooling if needed Benzodiazapines, such as lorazepam 1-2 mg IV q 4hrs What are active medical therapies? Controversial treatments Bromocriptine, dopamine agonist Dantrolene, classically used for malignant hyperthermia Amantadine, increases dopamine release Use as a last resort Dispo? Mortality is around 10% if not recognized and treated Most patients recover in 2-14 days Must wait 2 weeks before restarting any medications References Oruch, R., Pryme, I. F., Engelsen, B. A., & Lund, A. (2017). Neuroleptic malignant syndrome: an easily overlooked neurologic emergency. Neuropsychiatric disease and treatment, 13, 161–175. https://doi.org/10.2147/NDT.S118438 Tormoehlen, L. M., & Rusyniak, D. E. (2018). Neuroleptic malignant syndrome and serotonin syndrome. Handbook of clinical neurology, 157, 663–675. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-64074-1.00039-2 Velamoor, V. R., Norman, R. M., Caroff, S. N., Mann, S. C., Sullivan, K. A., & Antelo, R. E. (1994). Progression of symptoms in neuroleptic malignant syndrome. The Journal of nervous and mental disease, 182(3), 168–173. https://doi.org/10.1097/00005053-199403000-00007 Ware, M. R., Feller, D. B., & Hall, K. L. (2018). Neuroleptic Malignant Syndrome: Diagnosis and Management. The primary care companion for CNS disorders, 20(1), 17r02185. https://doi.org/10.4088/PCC.17r02185 Summarized by Jeffrey Olson MS2 | Edited by Meg Joyce & Jorge Chalit, OMSIII