Top of Mind with Julie Rose

There are more than 100,000 people on the waitlist for an organ transplant. Every day 17 of them die. Most organs for transplant come from deceased donors. But the organs in highest demand for transplantation are kidneys and livers – both of which can be donated while a person is still alive. So, we could save thousands of lives each year if more people were willing make a living organ donation. Some advocates say giving donors money would increase organ donations enough to eliminate the entire waitlist. But federal law makes it illegal to buy or sell organs. Ethicists have real concerns about coercion and exploitation, too. In this podcast episode, we're exploring America's organ shortage and asking whether paying donors could close the gap. Guests: David Galbenski, liver transplant recipient and co-founder of the Living Liver Foundation (https://livingliver.org/) Elaine Perlman, kidney donor, Executive Director of Waitlist Zero and leading advocate for the End Kidney Deaths Act (http://waitlistzero.org/) Kathleen McLaughlin, journalist and author of Blood Money; The Story of Life, Death, and Profit Inside America's Blood Industry Al Roth, Nobel-prize winning economist, Stanford University, expert in market design and game theory (https://marketdesigner.blogspot.com/)

Meet the teams behind Top of Mind and Uncomfy in this special crossover episode, where we share stories of sticking with a challenging perspective while working on the shows. We are exposed to a lot of nuanced viewpoints as we put podcast episodes together, which gives us the perfect opportunity to practice what we preach: choosing to lean into discomfort instead of lashing out or shying away. We’ve found clarity about our own beliefs, empathy for the people around us, and also developed the skills to tackle tough conversations. Tune in to Top of Mind to practice engaging with important, complicated topics. Check out Uncomfy, too, where we’re sharing stories of people choosing to engage in an uncomfortable moment instead of stepping back. And if you’ve had an “Uncomfy” experience lately, share it with us by emailing uncomfy@byu.edu. Guests: Top of Mind producers - Alayna Beck, Caleb Leach, Vanessa Goodman, and James Hoopes. Uncomfy producers - Samuel Benson and Henrique Prado. Find links to the podcast episodes referenced in this conversation below: What Does it Mean to Be White in America?: https://www.byuradio.org/top-of-mind-what-does-it-mean-to-be-white-in-america The Changing Ways We Decide Who Gets into College an Why it Matters: https://www.byuradio.org/top-of-mind-the-changing-way-we-decide-who-gets-into-college-and-why-it-matters Why We’re So Anxious About Retirement in America — And How We Can Fix It: https://www.byuradio.org/top-of-mind-why-were-so-anxious-about-retirement-in-america-and-how-we-can-fix-it What Can We Do About America’s Money in Politics Problem?: https://www.byuradio.org/top-of-mind-what-can-we-do-about-americas-money-in-politics-problem Spending a Day with People Who Think You Hate Them – Jefferson Shupe: https://www.byuradio.org/e14-spending-a-day-with-people-who-think-you-hate-them-jefferson-shupe

Only 44% of Americans say they have a "great deal" or "quite a bit of confidence" that the results of the 2024 election will be accurate. But party affiliation is a big part of the story. If you break down that 44%, only 1 in 4 Republicans have high confidence, compared to nearly 3 out of 4 Democrats. The reasons that so many Americans currently lack trust in elections differ on the political left and right, but a representative democracy like ours relies on all voters having a high level of confidence in the results of an election no matter who wins. Without it, people stop voting, losing candidates don't concede, winners can't lead effectively and the transition from one administration to the next is no longer guaranteed to be peaceful. In this episode, we hear what leads people on the left and right to lack trust in the integrity of U.S. elections. We meet a county clerk who ran for office because of his concerns about fraud and mail voting. Now he’s administering his first presidential election and trying to convince other voters to trust the system. Then we explore the recommendations of a group of Democrats and Republicans who came together in search of common ground around restoring trust in elections. Guests: Lenny Mirra, Republican former Massachusetts State Representative, “Red” member of the Braver Angels Trustworthy Elections Initiative leadership team (https://braverangels.org/trustworthy-elections/) Catherine Roeske, city clerk of Oak Creek, Wisconsin (https://www.oakcreekwi.gov/government/departments/clerk/elections) Aaron Davidson, Clerk of Utah County, Utah (https://vote.utahcounty.gov/home) Jay Young, Senior Director of Voting and Democracy, Common Cause (https://www.commoncause.org/issues/stopping-voter-suppression/) Reena Bernards, creator of Common Ground Workshop, “Blue” member of the Braver Angels Trustworthy Elections Initiative leadership team (https://braverangels.org/trustworthy-elections/)

Presidential elections in the US are twice as expensive as they were just a decade ago, and so are the most competitive Congressional races. Even state and local elections now routinely see record spending – typically from “outside groups” that have no restrictions on what they can raise or spend. The current state of money in politics is a rare point of bipartisan agreement in America. Overwhelming majorities of Republicans and Democrats think the cost of campaigns makes it hard for good people to run for office and that big donors and special interest groups have too much influence over politicians. Plus, political donors and special interest groups are more ideological than the average citizen, making political campaigns more polarized. In this podcast episode, we explore what’s changed in the last decade to dramatically increase the flow of money in US elections. And we look at a wide range of efforts underway to address the influence of money in politics. Guests: David Jolly, former Republican Congressman from Florida’s 13th District (https://davidjolly.com/) Jeff Clements, constitutional Lawyer and CEO of American Promise, sponsors of the “For Our Freedom Amendment” (https://americanpromise.net/) Ray La Raja, professor of political science at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst and co-author of “Campaign Finance and Political polarization: When Purists Prevail” (https://www.fulcrum.org/concern/monographs/h702q709t) Rene LeBeau, Democracy Voucher Program Manager for the Seattle Ethics and Elections Commission (https://seattle.gov/democracyvoucher) Alan Durning, CEO of Sightline Institute (https://www.sightline.org/)

A trial by jury is an important American right, enshrined in the 6th and 7th amendments of the constitution. But do jury trials work the way we want them to? Not all countries use citizen juries in their justice systems, and the ones that do generally don't give them quite as much power as America does. But juries are also becoming rare in the United States. Only 2% of criminal trials ever make it in front of a jury because prosecutors pressure defendants to take plea deals as a faster, cheaper alternative to trial. And most of us dread getting called to serve on a jury. Should America continue to lean away from juries, or press to make them more present in our system - and perhaps more just? In this podcast episode, we talk to someone who’s served on a jury, and someone who was wrongfully convicted by one. We'll also talk to experts about where juries fall short and what we can do about that. Guests: Kristen Cambell, CEO of Philanthropy for Active Civic Engagement (PACE) (https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/how-jury-duty-yes-duty-changed-my-life-riyzc/) Herman Lindsey, executive director of Witness to Innocence (https://www.witnesstoinnocence.org/single-post/herman-lindsey) James Binnall, lawyer and professor at California State University Long Beach, author of "Twenty Million Angry Men: The Case for Including Convicted Felons in Our Juries" (https://doi.org/10.1111/lapo.12015) Valerie Hans, law professor at Cornell University (https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=4168115)

Why is it so hard to draw the line between what’s funny or offensive? We love to laugh and we prize a good sense of humor in ourselves and others. But the ancient Greeks – Aristotle and Plato – said humor was bad for society: they thought of it mainly as mockery and laughing was a loss of self-control. When you consider how quickly humor can go wrong in the hands of a bully or an edgy standup routine, you have to wonder - were the Greek philosophers right? In this podcast episode we meet a biracial standup comic who jokes often about race and thinks comedians should be able to joke about anything, so long as it’s funny, original and authentic to their experiences. We also consider the difference between racist humor and humor that’s racially insensitive or “merely racial” with a leading expert on the ethics of racial humor. And then we ask what it would take to maximize the benefits of humor in every day interactions, where you could argue the goals and rules are different. Podcast Guests: Isak Allen, Los Angeles-based standup comedian (https://www.drybarcomedy.com/isaka) Luvell Anderson, professor of philosophy at University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign Mike Cundall, a professor of philosophy at North Carolina A&T State University, author of The Humor Hack, and founder of Mirth Management consulting. (https://www.mirthmanagement.co/)

For a century, the ACT and SAT played a central role in filtering college applicants. Most colleges and universities stopped requiring standardized test scores during the pandemic; that change has turned into a permanent shift across higher education. A lot of people think that's for the better, particularly since the tests have long been shown to disadvantage students of color and those with fewer economic resources. But now a growing number of elite schools - including Harvard, MIT and Dartmouth - are reinstating the test requirement. Why are they struggling to make up their minds? Meanwhile, the Supreme Court outlawed another prominent filter elite schools have used to make admissions decisions - race. Now that test score requirements are in flux and affirmative action is illegal, how do we decide who gets into college? Guests: Emi Nietfeld, journalist and author of "Acceptance: A Memoir" Nicholas Lemann, professor at the Columbia School of Journalism and author of "The Big Test: The Secret History of the American Meritocracy" and "Higher Admissions: The Rise, Decline, and Return of Standardized Testing" Alix Coupet, former admissions officer at Stanford and the University of Chicago, currently working in private admissions counseling Patricia Gandara, professor at UCLA’s Graduate School of Education and a co-director of the Civil Rights Project at UCLA

Most Americans are anxious about when – or even if – they’ll be able to retire. And we’re not wrong. Social Security is on shaky footing. Half of Americans on the cusp of retirement have no money saved for it. This isn’t how retirement in America was supposed to work. But 40 years ago, Congress shifted the US away from employer pensions and toward a do-it-yourself system based on 401K retirement saving plans. It’s not going well. In this episode we get to the bottom of why so many Americans are unable to retire comfortably and end up, instead, living in poverty or working well past age 70. And we’ll learn what we can do on an individual and national level to improve retirement in America. Podcast Guests: Teresa Ghilarducci, professor of economics at the New School for Social Research, author of Work, Retire, Repeat: The Uncertainty of Retirement in the New Economy (https://teresaghilarducci.org/) Aubrey Johnson, 24, recent college graduate Heather Sheffer, 45, self-employed Mike Cundall, 50, philosophy professor North Carolina A&T State University Jaye Crist, 63, printing business employee, artist @jayecrist on Instagram Penny Pennington Weeks, 58, retired from Oklahoma State University faculty at age 55, posts garden and retirement content @pennypenningtonweeks on Instagram Cami (last name withheld), 38, full-time nurse, divorced mother of four kids Maryann O’Connor, 67, owner of Kindred Woman Travelers (https://www.kindredwomentravelers.com/) Elaine Jarvie, 68, retired, RV traveler

Compared to other wealthy nations, America has twice as many traffic deaths per capita. And in recent years, pedestrian and cyclist deaths have spiked. Experts say road design plays a big part in this. The most dangerous roads are “suburban arteries” that are often 5 or 6 lanes wide, with long distances between traffic lights where pedestrians can cross. On this episode of the podcast, we explore why American roads are designed almost exclusively for vehicles and what it would take to make them safer for people on foot and bicycle. Can streets allow good flow for vehicles, but still have bike lanes and safe crossing options for pedestrians? Cars these days are supercomputers on wheels – could technology solve this problem for us? Podcast Guests: Lizi Rahman, mother of Asif Rahman and member of Families for Safer Streets (https://www.familiesforsafestreets.org/) Angie Schmitt, author of “Right of Way: Race, Class, and the Silent Epidemic of Pedestrian Deaths in America” (https://usa.streetsblog.org/author/angie) Steve Morris, co-founder of the West Roxbury Safety Association (https://www.facebook.com/WestRoxburysafetyassociation/) John McElroy, journalist and president of Autoline (https://www.autoline.tv/)

What does it mean to be a father in 2024? In the US, the “primary breadwinner dad” is increasingly rare, while the "primary caregiver dad” is becoming more common. And dads are generally doing a lot more childcare and housework than their fathers and grandfathers did. But women still do twice as much housework as their husbands, so it’s not uncommon to see tempers flare online when fathers get praised for parenting while mothers don’t. How are American families navigating these changings? In this podcast episode, we talk with a working father who overcame some biased assumptions about household duties. We talk to a stay-at-home dad about the decision he and his wife made more than a decade ago to have him be the primary caregiver for their children. And then, a single father with full custody of his three young kids talks about what the experience and taught him about society’s assumptions about the needs of parents. Finally, a historian of American family life will explain how the division of duties we consider “traditional” is a relatively recent development. Podcast Guests: Clint Edwards, author of “No Idea What I’m Doing” dad blog and parenting books “Father-ish: Laugh-Out-Loud Tales From a Dad Trying Not to Ruin His Kids’ Lives” and “I’m Sorry... Love, Your Husband” (https://clintedwards.substack.com/) Shannon Carpenter, father and comedy writer, author of “The Ultimate Stay-at-Home Dad” (https://www.shannoncarpenterauthor.com/) Daniel Ortega, single dad with full custody of his three kids and founder of The Mindful Wolf (www.themindfulwolf.com) Stephanie Coontz, Director of Research and Public Education at the Council on Contemporary Families, Professor Emerita at Evergreen State College, former Woodrow Wilson Fellow, author of “The Way We Never Were - American Families and the Nostalgia Trap” (https://www.stephaniecoontz.com) Voices from the Council of Moms, hosted by The Lisa Show (https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLwfgWmzxxX046s1nNNo7HNa-LTIfguVnT)

More than two-thirds of children under the age of 6 in the U.S. live in a household where all available parents work. But in most communities, there’s a shortage of slots in childcare centers and home-based providers. Because of unreliable childcare, as many as 100,000 Americans are forced to stay home from work at least once a month, according to the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. That's not to mention the cost, which eats up about 13 percent of an American family's income on average, sometimes rivaling what they pay for food, utilities, or even rent. If there's so much demand for childcare in America, why aren't entrepreneurs flocking to meet that demand? The bottom line is the numbers don't work. In this episode, we’re exploring why America’s childcare crisis is an equation we can’t seem to balance and what it means for families and communities, including those of us who don't need or want childcare. We’ll tackle the interesting history of childcare with a policy expert, get an inside look with a childcare provider owner in Virginia, and finally, we talk with a parent who pushed her community to do something different. Podcast Guests: Juanterria Pope-Browne, creator and owner of Kidz with Goals Unlimited, a daycare in Hopewell, Virginia (https://www.kidzwithgoals.com/) Elliot Haspel, senior fellow at Capita, author of Crawling Behind: America’s Childcare Crisis and How to Fix It (https://elliothaspel.com/) Lindsey Buegler, parent and accountant in Warren, Minnesota and former daycare board member (https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/a-minnesota-town-may-be-a-blueprint-for-how-to-fix-the-nations-childcare-crisis/)

Americans have a perplexing perception of crime. One in three Americans report watching, listening, or reading true crime on a weekly basis. But our fixation on crime goes deeper than entertainment. Both Republicans and Democrats consider violent crime an increasing problem. But most of us are safer today than we’ve ever been. Violent crime in America is down 50% since the 1990s. What’s driving the disconnect in our perception of crime? And what consequences does it have for our communities? Where might be a better place to direct our attention? On this podcast episode, we talk to a devoted fan of true crime who has also studied the effect it has on people. A leading research on crime and public perception in America explains how the 9/11 terror attacks fueled the disconnect in how safe Americans are and how safe they feel they are. We also speak with a survivor of intimate partner violence who created an organization to educate people about domestic and intimate partner violence, which pose a far greater threat to Americans than the crime we most fear. Podcast Guests: Amanda Vicary, Chair of the Psychology Department and professor at Illinois Wesleyan University (https://amandavicary.com/) John Roman, senior fellow in economics, justice, and society at NORC at the University of Chicago, director of the Center on Public Safety and Justice (https://substack.com/@johnkroman) Twahna P. Harris, domestic violence survivor and founder and executive director of The Butterfly Society (https://www.thebutterflysociety.org/)

These days anything that's widespread might be called an "epidemic." Violence, obesity, opioids, even loneliness. But in the public health space, the label "epidemic" means something specific - a disease that's widespread and usually contagious. How does thinking about social issues as epidemics change the way we approach them? We'll explore the pros and cons with first responders on the front line of different epidemics. In this podcast episode, an ER doctor explains the cyclical, contagious nature of violence. A dietician considers the unintended consequences of making weight loss the focus of the obesity epidemic. A paramedic with 30 years of experience traces the evolution of the opioid overdose crisis in America and argues for empathy and harm reduction to save more lives. Finally, we consider America’s newest epidemic – loneliness – with the nation’s leading scientist on the harm caused by social isolation. In what ways does framing these issues as epidemics enable us to cure them? Podcast Guests: Rob Gore, MD, founder of the Kings Against Violence Initiative (KAVI), and author of “Treating Violence: An Emergency Room Doctor Takes on a Deadly American Epidemic” (https://kavibrooklyn.org/) Kirsten Morrisson, registered dietitian and certified Intuitive Eating counselor, host of Intuitive Bites podcast (https://theintuitiverd.com/podcast/) Peter Canning, paramedic, EMS coordinator at UCONN John Dempsey Hospital, and author of “Killing Season: A Paramedic's Dispatches from the Frontlines of the Opioid Epidemic” (https://www.petercanning.org/) Julianne Holt-Lunstad, professor of psychology and neuroscience at Brigham Young University, director of the Social Connection & Health Lab, and lead scientist on the Surgeon General's 2023 report on Loneliness and Social Isolation (https://www.hhs.gov/sites/default/files/surgeon-general-social-connection-advisory.pdf)

Since 2020 — when George Floyd's murder was seen around the world and protests for racial justice swept the country — many Americans with white skin have begun to think explicitly about race and its consequences. What does it mean to be white in America? What’s it like to be not-white-enough? Or to not have your racial identity reflected on official government forms? How did white become the default against which all other skin colors are measured? In this podcast episode, we explore the nuance of what it means to be white in America with guests who fall along the spectrum of whiteness. We’ll hear one woman’s story of waking up to her whiteness and understanding how skin color matters in America. A leading historian of race in America explains how – and why – whiteness was invented. We’ll consider the complicated relationship people who identify as Hispanic or Latin American have long had with whiteness. And a multiracial mother will share insights on how to help children be thoughtful, informed and brave about race. Podcast Guests: Debby Irving, racial justice educator, author of “Waking Up White (and finding myself in the story of race)” (https://www.debbyirving.com/) Nell Irvin Painter, professor emerita of American History at Princeton, author of “The History of White People” and “I Just Keep Talking” (http://www.nellpainter.com/) Julie Dowling, professor of Sociology and Latin American/Latino Studies, University of Illinois, Chicago, author of “Mexican Americans and the Question of Race” Melissa Giraud, founder and co-director of Embrace Race (https://www.embracerace.org/)

We’re in between episodes this week on Top of Mind. In the meantime, we’ve got a story for you from a podcast we think you’re really going to like. It’s called When the People Decide, a podcast from the McCourtney Institute for Democracy at Penn State. The podcast traces the stories of Americans who are getting their hands dirty doing the hard work of democracy. In this episode, host Jenna Spinelle dives deep into an innovative budgeting practice where citizens decide how to spend a portion of their city’s budget. Imagine if you could be more directly involved in deciding how your city spends its money. Would having that kind of influence change how you feel about your city? Or how much you trust local officials? Find When the People Decide on your favorite podcast app. Or here: https://thepeopledecide.show/

In this podcast episode, Julie and the other members of the Top of Mind team reflect on moments from previous episodes that challenged them to stay curious and stick with uncomfortable perspectives instead of dismissing them or putting up defenses. As we put podcast episodes together, we have these “Stick With It” moments all the time – and we hope you do, too, because they’ve led us to new empathy, deeper relationships, and clarity about our own views. One of our producers grapples with the grading system she grew up with. Another reconsiders her thinking on the impact of social media use on teen mental health. We'll also explore a complicated relationship with unions, find empathy in the medication for mental health debate, and reassess the language we use when talking about homelessness. We’d love to hear your “Stick With It” moments. Email your story to topofmind@byu.edu. We’re also on social media @topofmindpod. Podcast Guests: Top of Mind producers Alayna Beck, Vanessa Goodman, Amber Mortensen, Samuel Benson, and James Hoopes. Find links below to all of the Top of Mind episodes referenced in this episode. Many Students Lack Motivation to Learn. What Can We do?: https://www.byuradio.org/top-of-mind-many-students-lack-motivation-to-learn-what-can-we-do Teen Mental Health in America is Getting Worse. What Can We Do About It?: https://www.byuradio.org/top-of-mind-teen-mental-health-in-america-is-getting-worse-what-can-we-do An Explosion of Union Activity in the US and What it Means: https://www.byuradio.org/top-of-mind-an-explosion-of-union-activity-in-the-us-and-what-it-means Ending Homelessness in America Feels Impossible. Is It?: https://www.byuradio.org/top-of-mind-ending-homelessness-in-america-feels-impossible-is-it

Our “Stick With It” series on the Top of Mind podcast continues with a story from David Beckemeyer, host of the podcast “Outrage Overload.” Beckemeyer used to spend his time engaging in social media fights. When his son, who also often indulged in heated online discussions, decided to step away from social media, Beckemeyer was prompted to closely examine his own behavior, leading him to make a significant change and delve into why so many of us fall into the outrage trap. The Top of Mind podcast would love to hear your Stick With It story. Can you think of a time when you felt your perspective or worldview challenged and, instead of getting defensive, you chose to lean into the discomfort – and you’re glad you did? Email your story to topofmind@byu.edu. Podcast Guest: David Beckemeyer, host of the Outrage Overload podcast

Floods are the most common of all weather-related disasters in America. They cause more damage and kill more people than any other type of severe weather. Flood risk is rising all over the country—rainstorms are more intense and flash floods are happening more frequently. The communities facing the greatest risk in the coming decades are disproportionately poor and Black. But here’s the thing: damage from flooding is the most preventable of all natural disasters: moving to higher ground is a proven solution to flood damage. But a lot of factors, like money, history and human nature, make relocation complicated. On this podcast episode, we explore why flooding is such a challenging problem and how cities are adapting. A climate scientist explains how warmer temperatures increase extreme flood risk (it’s the atmospheric sponge effect!) We’ll learn why America’s approach to preventing flooding has backfired and how Tulsa, Oklahoma has bucked the trend – going from one of the most flood prone cities in the country to one of the most flood resistant. And the mayor of an historic town settled by recently freed Black people will explain why relocating out of the flood zone isn’t a simple choice. Podcast Guests: Daniel Swain, climate scientist at UCLA and the National Center for Atmospheric Research, WeatherWest on YouTube Tim Palmer, author of “Seek Higher Ground: The Natural Solution to our Urgent Flooding Crisis” Joseph Kralicek, executive director, Tulsa Area Emergency Management Agency Bobbie Jones, mayor of Princeville, North Carolina

There are more people homeless in America today than at any other time in the last 17 years. Those numbers might have gotten a lot worse during the pandemic were it not for millions of dollars in federal funds for emergency housing. That money’s all dried up now. In the early 2000s, many of these cities adopted “10-year plans to end homelessness,” buoyed by a push from the White House. But that hasn’t happened. Ending homelessness in America feels impossible. Is It? In this podcast episode, we talk to someone who experienced homelessness in Denver and now works to solve it. We also talk to the man leading successful efforts to solve homelessness in Houston, a researcher who's studied why we aren't building more housing, and a tech philanthropist in San Francisco with an innovative approach to the problem. Podcast Guests: Cuica Montoya, senior director of homelessness programs at the Colorado Village Collaborative Marc Eichenbaum, special assistant to the mayor for homelessness initiative in Houston Katherine Levine Einstein, professor of political science at Boston University Elizabeth Funk, founder and CEO of DignityMoves

Nearly a dozen states have active campaigns to move away from partisan or closed primaries, motivated by a frustration among many voters that the way parties choose nominees in high-stakes elections is broken. By the time most of us cast a ballot in a Presidential Primary, it feels like a pointless exercise: earlier states have already winnowed the field to a clear front-runner. No wonder turnout for primary elections is so low! But here’s the thing: In 2020, the majority of Congressional and state legislative seats in the US were decided in the primary; because voting districts have been gerrymandered to favor one party so heavily, whoever wins that party's primary sails to victory in the general. Why don't more of us vote in primaries? Does weakening the power of political parties to control who runs and who votes in a primary election improve turnout and engagement? In this episode of the Top of Mind podcast, we explore the origins of primary elections and variation between states. We speak with an incumbent politician who got “primaried” by a more extreme challenger; and a moderate candidate who’s struggled to win in a closed primary system. Then we talk to an activist for open primaries and ranked-choice voting to learn the limits of primary elections reform. Podcast Guests: Doug Goodman, founder of Nevadans for Election Reform Rob Boatright, professor of political science at Clark University Nick Bain, former member of the Mississippi State House of Representative Becky Edwards, former Utah state legislator and founder of Governing Group PAC