“Peace through strength” has long been a nebulous phrase in political rhetoric. While it has been marshalled by both political parties, it has been used by Republican hawks and their supporters to assail liberal Democrats as both reckless and feckless, too quick to commit troops to war and too weak to lead them to victory. While users of the phrase have presented it as a departure from liberal interventionism, it has preserved the core assumptions of a fundamentally liberal postwar order. Advocates of “peace through strength” have used it to advocate for seemingly every foreign policy position, from containment to rollback, prosecuting wars, and pursuing diplomacy. Despite its malleability, it has, however, consistently served as a rhetorical bait and switch, entrenching the very liberal world order that conservative hawks claim to oppose.

Despite the phrase’s eventual popularity with conservative hawks, it was initially used to promote an explicitly liberal internationalist vision of foreign policy. This was true of both foreign policy professionals and politicians, who adopted the slogan after World War II to signal a vague realpolitik. While President Dwight D. Eisenhower and his cabinet often used alternative wordings rather than the exact phrase, they consistently tied the idea of peace to the projection of strength—thereby indicating continuity with the preceding Truman administration and the foreign policy status quo.

Coming off the height of the Cold War, many still feared the specter of global Soviet domination, yet were equally wary of the human cost a direct war with the USSR would bring. Indeed, a 1952 Pennsylvania newspaper poll found that an overwhelming majority of Americans preferred “peace through strength” when stacked against “go to war against Russia” and reaching a “settlement with concessions.” Yet, much like in subsequent periods, this slogan was not merely a tool for courting public opinion, but also a political bait-and-switch. It provided both the Truman and Eisenhower administrations with indirect justification for incorporating politically unpopular policies, such as foreign aid and diplomatic commitments, into what appeared to be a hard-nosed realist foreign policy strategy.

However, such a principle was not in line with the Cold War strategy Americans preferred. Although many Americans indeed supported a form of measured deterrence against a Soviet attack on the United States, the Korean War left the American public war-weary and skeptical of protracted containment. Underlining this point was that the very same newspaper poll, which cited support for “peace through strength,” noted that this support shrank by over half when the prospect of “fighting small wars such as Korea” was put on the table. While many Americans interpreted the “strength” part of the phrase to refer to defensive military buildup, the Eisenhower administration was more open to maintaining America’s overseas commitments.

“Peace through strength” during the Truman and Eisenhower years was also frequently employed in ways that echoed the rhetoric of liberal internationalism. Instead of emphasizing domestic security, the concept was frequently paired with moralistic claims about America’s “responsibility for world leadership” and its duty to “achieve global peace for all peoples”—commitments that, in practice, could demand military intervention even when such action conflicted with the nation’s own security interests. So, while Americans sought a limited, security-focused deterrence interpretation of “peace through strength”, the open questions of “peace for whom” and “what kind of strength” created space for foreign policy that went against public sentiment.

This bipartisanship, however, was not politically neutral. Instead, it was a political maneuver to repackage unpopular liberal internationalist policies as a pragmatic middle ground between unrestrained jingoism and unilateral capitulation. This supposed “balance” was reflected in the rhetoric of numerous administration officials, most clearly in the 1957 National Security Council report, which declared that U.S. anti-communist strategy should focus on “deterring further Communist aggression” while “preventing the occurrence of total war so far as compatible with U.S. security.” The logic was simple: that supporting U.S. allies, both economically and militarily, was not only a moral imperative but a manifestation of American strength that would deter the Soviets.

From these early Cold War roots, politicians on both sides of the aisle continued to employ the phrase sparingly, using it more as a descriptive label for the post-World War II liberal internationalist consensus than as a policy platform. This changed, however, during the 1964 election. In it, Barry Goldwater made “peace through strength” a core tenet of his presidential campaign. Goldwater argued, “Peace in Asia depends on our strength, and on our purpose to use that strength to achieve peace. Nowhere in the world today is there a clearer road to ‘peace through strength’ than in Viet Nam.” For the senator from Arizona, the phrase did not mean mere containment, but rather decisive military victory.

While Goldwater adopted the phrase, the liberal internationalist incumbent, Lyndon Johnson, criticized it, stating, “The policy of the United States is not simply ‘peace through strength’, but peace through positive, persistent, active effort.” The difference went beyond semantics: While Johnson justified U.S. involvement in Vietnam on idealistic grounds of freedom and self-determination, Goldwater framed the war effort in realist terms. This was not a blanket hawkishness, but a strategic realignment—one that moved American foreign policy away from the ideological pursuits of foreign assistance and open-ended international commitments toward the direct pursuit of confronting the USSR, which he believed was America’s predominant strategic interest.

Though Goldwater never got the chance to implement his foreign policy, his widespread use of the phrase tied it to both realism and the Republican Party, particularly among young Republicans who entered politics in the aftermath of Vietnam. At a time when many Republicans tried to exploit a new divide between the dovish “McGovern wing” of the Democratic Party and Johnson’s liberal interventionism, this presented the Republicans with a new opportunity. Beginning with Gerald Ford and especially Ronald Reagan, “peace through strength” emerged as a way to signal realism as a third path between these two unpopular alternatives.

However, both Ford and Reagan’s implementation of the phrase was much closer to its liberal internationalist origins than Goldwater’s realism. Whereas Goldwater’s “peace through strength” was limited and focused both fiscally and militarily, Ford and Reagan’s version was significantly less realist in nature. While their emphasis on American exceptionalism over humanitarian burden might have provided an appearance of realism, these goals were framed as idealistic ends in themselves rather than as means to an end. They reflected a commitment to securing democracy abroad even when such efforts offered no direct, material benefit to American security.

This approach took shape in the political climate that followed the Vietnam War. As Americans grew to view the war unfavorably, widespread anti-military sentiment drove restrictions on presidential powers and a decline in defense spending. Yet Ford, under pressure from conservative hawks who viewed him as soft on foreign policy, submitted the two largest peacetime defense budgets in U.S. history in 1976. Later that year, in his primary campaign against Ronald Reagan, he repeatedly touted this decision as a “peace through strength” policy. He echoed the sentiment in h