Iran’s Religious and Ethnic Diversity, Part I: Introduction This episode delves into the rich tapestry of Iran's religious, linguistic, and ethnic diversity, tracing its roots from the ancient Persian empires to the transformative events of the Islamic Revolution of 1979. Iran’s historical role as a crossroads of civilizations has shaped a multi-ethnic society, with Persian as the national language alongside numerous minority languages and dialects. Religiously, while Shiism dominates, smaller communities of Sunni Muslims, Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians, and Bahā’īs contribute to the nation’s pluralistic identity. We explore how efforts at centralization during the Pahlavi era—through language policies, land reforms, and modernization—sought to homogenize this diversity, often with limited success. The Islamic Revolution then ushered in a Shiite theocracy, profoundly impacting Iran’s sociopolitical fabric. Recognized religious minorities, such as Zoroastrians, Christians, and Jews, face varying degrees of inclusion and restrictions, influenced by constitutional provisions and state strategies. From Reza Shah’s modernization policies to Khomeini’s establishment of a dual governance system, the episode examines the tension between Iran’s vibrant diversity and the state's attempts to impose ideological unity. Keywords #IranDiversity #ReligiousPluralism #IslamicRevolution #PersianHeritage #EthnicMinorities #Jews #Iranianjews #Rezashah #Khomeini #Iran
Iranian Languages and Dialects, Part II: Old Persian This episode delves into the rich history of Old Persian and Middle Iranian epigraphy, exploring the evolution and significance of inscriptions and manuscripts from the pre-Islamic period. We begin by defining inscriptions and manuscripts, noting the materials they were crafted on and their various purposes, from public proclamations to administrative documents. We then examine the classification of inscriptions by size, language, and style, with notable examples such as the monumental inscription of Darius I at Bīsotūn. The discussion highlights the primary Iranian languages used in inscriptions: Old Persian, Middle Persian, Parthian, Chorasmian, Sogdian, and Bactrian. These inscriptions, often trilingual, reflect the multinational nature of the Achaemenid, Parthian, Sasanian, and Kushan empires, necessitating attention to non-Iranian languages like Babylonian, Elamite, Aramaic, Greek, Sanskrit, and Middle Indian. The episode also addresses the underdeveloped state of Iranian epigraphy, with significant contributions from the Corpus Inscriptionum Iranicarum and other key archaeological reports. We then explore the pivotal discoveries and methodologies that advanced the field, including the identification and decipherment of Old Persian by early scholars. The episode concludes with an overview of the Old Persian royal inscriptions found across various sites, their linguistic significance, and the insights they provide into Achaemenid administration and culture. For a better understanding, please review my previous episode on Iranian Languages and Dialects, Part I which serves as a preamble to this discussion.
Forensic linguistics is a field that examines the use of language in legal contexts, focusing on the production and perception of utterances, particularly in courts. It applies linguistic knowledge to legal questions, serving as an interface between language, crime, and law. This discipline encompasses various applications, such as phonetic analysis of voices and verification of document authenticity. The history of forensic linguistics traces back to ancient times, with debates over authorship dating back to the Greek playwrights. The term itself was first used in 1968 by JAN SVARTVIK. He analyzed statements made by Timothy John Evans, highlighting discrepancies due to police practices that deviated from established Judges' Rules. These practices often led to distorted narratives, affecting the accuracy and fairness of legal proceedings. Authorship identification is a significant aspect of forensic linguistics. Disadvantaged speakers, when giving statements to authority figures, may face challenges in maintaining control over their narrative. This can lead to a distortion of the authorship process, especially when there are significant differences in language use between the suspect and officials. The concept of a "Linguistic Fingerprint" suggests that individuals use language uniquely, akin to a fingerprint. However, despite its appeal to law enforcement and commercial interests, there is little hard evidence supporting this notion. The term "forensic" often raises expectations of scientific precision, which may not always align with the realities of forensic linguistics. In court, linguists and lawyers have different objectives. While lawyers aim to persuade the jury, linguists present and explain their expert opinions. This difference in goals can lead to conflicts, especially regarding cooperation and the interpretation of evidence. Overall, forensic linguistics is a science that applies linguistic methodologies to legal contexts, but it should be approached with caution to avoid overestimating its capabilities. The notion of a linguistic fingerprint remains contentious and requires further examination to establish its validity.
The Indo-European language family, encompassing languages like Greek, Latin, Sanskrit, and Proto-Indo-European, traces its origins to a complex interplay of migrations and cultural exchanges. The Anatolian branch, traditionally thought to have entered the region from Thrace, is supported by recent genetic findings in Bulgaria, revealing steppe ancestry similar to Sredny Stog as early as 4500 BC. This ancestry suggests that Anatolian may have developed from related groups in the region, potentially emerging from a dialect or sister language to Proto-Indo-European. The Hittite language, a member of the Anatolian branch, shows minimal connection to steppe ancestry, and this is also seen in other instances such as the Etruscans, who spoke a non-Indo-European language despite having a significant steppe genetic component. The historical spread of Indo-European languages is often linked to the influence of power and prestige rather than merely the number of speakers. In some cases, Indo-European languages became dominant as ruling elites imposed their languages over local populations, integrating with them while maintaining their linguistic and cultural identities. Contemporary theories face challenges, particularly regarding Indo-Iranian languages. The notion that Proto-Indo-Europeans migrated into Iran and subsequently into India contradicts evidence of high steppe ancestry among Indo-Iranians. The Rig Veda, for instance, describes migrating Indo-Iranians with physical traits distinct from the native Dravidians, undermining theories that suggest a late acquisition of steppe ancestry in India. The Yamnaya culture, a key player in this linguistic evolution, represents a fusion of steppe hunter-gatherers from the Pontic-Caspian region with Caucasian groups, resulting from aggressive expansion rather than peaceful integration. This complex interaction formed a cultural and linguistic unit that spread across Europe and Asia, shaping the diverse Indo-European languages we recognize today. Here are the earlier forms of the word "wheel" in Old Persian, Latin, Greek, and Sanskrit: 1. **Old Persian**: 𐎲𐎼𐎺 (wawā), transliterated as *wawā*. This term reflects the influence of the Indo-European root in Old Persian. *Cf. English wheel or vehicle or French "voiture" 2. **Latin**: *rota*. This term directly descends from the Proto-Indo-European root *wékʷlos*. Cf. German "Rad" 3. **Ancient Greek**: τροχός (trochós). This term is derived from the same Proto-Indo-European root, reflecting a consistent morphological evolution across Indo-European languages. Cf. English "round" 4. **Sanskrit**: चक्र (cakra). This term represents the concept of a wheel or disk and is derived from the Proto-Indo-European root *wékʷlos*. Cf. English car or Spanish "carro"
Gordon Childe, a notable Australian archaeologist, published "The Aryans," reflecting early interest in Europe's past. Unfortunately, the Nazi regime misused archaeological findings to promote their ideology, leading to atrocities during the Holocaust. This dark chapter caused archaeologists to avoid race and ethnicity topics. Earlier racial theories in archaeology, primarily based on craniometry, have been debunked. Modern anthropology uses advanced methods to study past populations, and claims about racial groups based on ancient skeletal remains are highly skeptical. Despite its controversial past, linguistic archaeology offers valuable insights. The migration of Celtic peoples to Britain and Ireland around 2000 BC, for instance, lacks substantial evidence. Some argue Celtic languages have older roots in these regions. The concept of Indo-European languages, coined by Thomas Young in 1813, remains a central puzzle. Scholars debate whether these languages spread through mass migrations or cultural exchanges. This question extends to linguistic ties with India and Iran. Investigating early literate societies in Europe, like the Greeks and Romans, and archaeological finds from the Iron Age, such as the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures, offer insights into early European societies. Prehistoric Europe saw significant transitions, from hunter-gatherer societies to farming communities and metallurgy. Monumental constructions like Megalithic Tombs and changes in burial practices reflect evolving social structures. As we reconsider early European archaeology, we must approach old questions with fresh perspectives. By updating our methodologies, we can better understand the migrations and cultural transformations that shaped ancient Europe.
In the preceding episode, we explored the foundational role of Sir William Jones in identifying the ancient Indo-European language as the ancestor of modern European languages. This episode focuses on Indo-European languages with examples from Sanskrit, Persian, and Hittite. Proto-Indo-European forms the linguistic root of Sanskrit, Persian, and Hittite, showcasing their shared ancestry despite geographical and historical distances. For instance, Sanskrit "rājan" (king) is etymologically connected to Old Persian "xšāyaθiya," both derived from the Indo-European root "*reg-" meaning "to rule" or "king." In Hittite, words like "kuššar" (head) resemble Sanskrit "śiras," Latin "caput," and Greek "kephalē," indicating common roots in basic vocabulary. Moreover, kinship terms such as Sanskrit "svasṛ" (sister), Persian "khāhar," and Hittite "nešša" (nephew/grandson) reveal shared Indo-European roots. The numeral "three" is similarly reflected in Sanskrit "tri," Persian "se," and Hittite "nēš." These examples underscore the enduring linguistic connections across Sanskrit, Persian, and Hittite, illustrating how Proto-Indo-European vocabulary and grammar have influenced and evolved within distinct cultural and historical contexts.
n this podcast episode, we delve into the groundbreaking contributions of Sir William Jones, a pioneering figure in the field of historical linguistics. Born in London in 1746, Jones distinguished himself not only as a jurist but also as a linguist with an exceptional aptitude for languages including Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Arabic, and Persian. His journey into linguistics and Asian cultures began early in his career, culminating in his appointment to the Calcutta Supreme Court in 1783. Jones's tenure in India proved transformative, fueled by his deep fascination with Sanskrit and its ancient texts. Despite initially lacking proficiency in Sanskrit upon his arrival in Bengal, Jones quickly immersed himself in its study. His fluency in Persian, which shares linguistic roots with Sanskrit, facilitated his linguistic insights. Jones's pivotal moment came in 1786 when he delivered a lecture to the Asiatic Society of Bengal, where he articulated his groundbreaking hypothesis. Drawing comparisons among Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Persian, and Gothic languages, he proposed a common ancestral language, Proto-Indo-European (PIE). This theory revolutionized linguistic studies by suggesting a shared linguistic origin for a vast array of languages across Europe and parts of Asia. His work not only laid the foundation for comparative linguistics but also underscored the interconnectedness of human cultures and histories. By identifying phonetic shifts and lexical similarities across these languages, Jones provided empirical evidence for the evolutionary paths of languages spoken by millions today. Jones's legacy extends beyond academia; his establishment of the Asiatic Society in Calcutta in 1784 became a hub for intellectual exchange, promoting the study of Indian languages, history, and culture. His efforts fostered a deeper understanding of India's rich heritage among European scholars. In summary, Sir William Jones's profound insights into the Indo-European language family reshaped linguistic scholarship and expanded our understanding of cultural diffusion and human migration. His pioneering work continues to influence linguistic and historical research, marking him as a seminal figure in the study of languages and civilizations.
The intersection of sociolinguistics and discourse analysis highlights how language operates within social contexts, bridging individual language usage and broader societal structures. Sociolinguistics examines language variation and change influenced by socio-economic status, ethnicity, gender, and age, while discourse analysis focuses on language beyond the sentence level, scrutinizing how texts and spoken interactions construct meaning and social reality. Discourse analysis, rooted in structuralism, post-structuralism, and functionalism, investigates how language is used in real contexts, emphasizing the dynamic interplay between language and social processes. Pioneers like Michel Foucault and Mikhail Bakhtin contributed significantly to this field, with Foucault's concept of discursive formations and Bakhtin's notions of dialogism and heteroglossia highlighting the power relations and interactive nature of discourse. Foucault, influenced by the French intellectual tradition, focused on the regulatory functions of discourse through power/knowledge dynamics, developing archaeological and genealogical methods to analyze historical discourses. In contrast, Bakhtin, embedded in the Russian literary tradition, emphasized the dialogic and subversive aspects of language, exploring the multiplicity of voices within discourse. Key concepts in discourse analysis include discourse, genre, intertextuality, cohesion, and coherence. Methodologically, it employs both qualitative and quantitative techniques, such as critical discourse analysis and corpus linguistics, to uncover patterns and ideological underpinnings in language use. The convergence of sociolinguistics and discourse analysis is evident in the study of social variation in language use, the examination of power and ideology in discourse, identity construction through language, contextualization and pragmatics, and language change. This interdisciplinary approach enriches our understanding of language as a social phenomenon, illuminating the complex relationship between linguistic practices and social structures.
LANGUAGE, DIALECT, ACCENT, SLANG, SOCIOLECT: AN INTRODUCTION In this episode, we'll explore sociolinguistics, the study of the relationship between language and society. We'll cover the differences between language, dialect, accent, pronunciation, and slang. A language is a system of communication, like English or Persian. A dialect is a regional or social variation of a language, including differences in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar. For instance, Austrian German and German German are dialects of the same language but use different words and pronunciations. Pronunciation is how we produce sounds, which can vary due to factors like speed, clarity, or context. An accent is the way you pronounce words influenced by your background. For example, someone from Abadan speaking Persian sounds different from someone from Tehran. Slang refers to informal words or phrases used by specific groups, often changing with generations. Examples from the past include "Schnellrechner" for computer or "Muckibude" for a gym, which are now outdated. A dialect continuum exists when dialects in geographically close regions are mutually intelligible, but those further apart may not be. Isoglosses are boundaries separating linguistic features, and when they cluster, they form dialect boundaries. Accents affect pronunciation but not vocabulary or grammar, while dialects encompass all three. Understanding these concepts helps us appreciate the rich diversity of language and how it reflects our identities and communities.
The term "Palestine" originates from "Philistia," used by Greek writers to describe the land of the Philistines along the southern coast between modern Tel Aviv–Yafo and Gaza during the 12th century BCE. The Romans revived the name in the 2nd century CE as "Syria Palaestina" to designate the southern part of the province of Syria, a strategic move to undermine Jewish identity. The name transitioned into Arabic during the early Islamic era and has been used since. A hypothetical etymology traces the term to "Peleset," found in Egyptian inscriptions from around 1150 BCE, referring to a group often identified with the Philistines, a people who lived on the southern coast of Canaan during the Iron Age. The name "Palestine" reemerged in official use after World War I under British mandate, covering present-day Israel, the West Bank, and Jordan. Historical evidence indicates a longstanding Jewish presence in the region, with synagogues oriented toward Jerusalem and records from the mid-19th century and earlier noting a Jewish majority in Jerusalem.
The lecture provides a comprehensive analysis of Iran's geopolitical significance and historical evolution, highlighting its role in regional conflicts and global relations. Iran's ambitions for regional influence, demonstrated through support for proxy groups and its nuclear program, have drawn international scrutiny and shaped its relationships with major world powers. The narrative delves into Iran's historical context, from its ancient Persian Empire to modern political upheavals, including the 1979 Islamic Revolution that fundamentally altered its foreign policy trajectory. The lecture explores Iran's complex relationships with the United States, Saudi Arabia, and other regional actors, emphasizing Iran's efforts to project power and preserve its national security amidst ongoing tensions and conflicts. The country's strategic positioning, ideological motivations, and military capabilities are examined in the context of broader Middle Eastern dynamics, underscoring Iran's persistent quest for self-preservation and regional dominance within the Muslim world despite challenges posed by international sanctions and regional adversaries.
Iranian Languages and Dialects, Part XV: Khuzestani Arabic Summary Khuzestani Arabic is a fascinating dialectthat bridges Southern Mesopotamian Arabic with Persian linguistic influences.While it retains many core features of Eastern Bedouin-type dialects, it alsodemonstrates phonological shifts, Persian lexical borrowing, and uniquesyntactic structures that distinguish it from other Arabic varieties.Understanding these linguistic dynamics is essential for appreciating thecomplex history and sociolinguistic identity of Khuzestani Arabic speakers.Here’s your chance to listen to authentic Khuzestani Arabic as Fatehem Jalali narrates the story of The Three Fish from Kalila and Dimna. Podcast: Orientalistics.Keywords#KhuzestaniArabic; #Linguistics;#ArabicDialects; #IranianArabs; #Khuzestan; #Ahwaz; #Sociolinguistics; #Persian;#Dialectology; #Phonology; #Syntax; #Vocabulary; #OralTradition; #GulfArabic;#IraqiArabic; #HistoricalLinguistics; #AchaemenidEmpire; #SassanianEmpire;#ParthianEmpire; #LanguagePolitics; #Bilingualism; #ArabicInIran;#MesopotamianHistory; #MinorityLanguages; #CulturalIdentity;Examples:. ابنتي تزوجت في سن صغير جدا (بتی عرست ابسن زغیر)٢. لو كان عندي مال لأقرضته لك (لو عندی فلوس چا دینتک)٣. لقد اشترت لي أختي هذا التلفاز (اختی اشترتلی هاذه تلفزیون)٤. نحن نتحدث العربية في المنزل ولكننا نتحدث الفارسية فيالخارج (احنه نحچی بل بیت عربی بس بارا فارسی)٥. ماذا فعلت بالكتاب الذي أعطيتك إياه؟ (اشسوت بلالکتاب الذی آنه اطتک یا؟
Zoroastrians, Jews, Christians & Other Minorities in Iran, Part IV: An Overview n this episode, I explore the multifaceted history of Persian Jews in 20th-century Iran, focusing on the challenges of national and religious identity under the Pahlavi regime and the Islamic Republic. From the pressures of "Iranization" and modernization to the post-revolutionary shift towards religious identity, I examine how these changes influenced the Jewish community's cultural, social, and political landscape. We delve into the effects of state policies on education, representation, and religious practices, along with the strategies Jewish leaders adopted to navigate loyalty to Iran while distancing themselves from Zionism. The episode also highlights the significant emigration of Iranian Jews due to political and societal challenges, offering a broader perspective on the situation of religious minorities in Iran. I’d love to hear your thoughts and questions—feel free to share them below in the comment section or email me at orientalistics@gmail.com. I look forward to your insights! Keywords #PersianJews; #IranianHistory; #ReligiousMinorities; #JewishCommunity; #PahlaviEra; #IslamicRevolution; #IranianJudaism; #ReligiousDiscrimination; #JewishIdentity; #IranianPolitics; #Zionism; #Zoroastrians; #HolocaustDenial; #CulturalAdaptation; #Emigration; #Shiism; #ReligiousFreedom; #IranianStudies #Bahais #Christians #SufiOrders #Sufism
Part III: Religious Minorities in Modern Iran In this episode, I delved into the intricate dynamics of religious minorities in the Islamic Republic of Iran. We explored how the 1979 Islamic Revolution brought ideological shifts that reshaped policies and attitudes toward non-Muslim communities. From the strategic public relations campaigns projecting tolerance to the underlying systemic discrimination entrenched in laws, the discussion unravelled the complexities of the state’s dual narrative. I also examined the social realities faced by Iran’s religious minorities, including Persian Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians, and how they navigate a society shaped by both solidarity and segregation. The episode further addressed Iran's ideological opposition to Zionism, its domestic policies toward Jewish communities, and the broader global implications of its approach to diversity. This conversation offered a nuanced look at the contradictions between ideology and practice, shedding light on the delicate balance between state policies and societal attitudes. Your thoughts and reflections are welcome—let’s keep the dialogue going! Keywords #ReligiousMinorities; #IranianHistory; #IslamicRevolution; #ShiiteIslam; #MinorityRights; #IslamicRepublic; #Zionism; #ReligiousDiscrimination; #HumanRights; #IranianJews; #Zoroastrianism; #ChristianityInIran; #InterfaithRelations; #ClericalInfluence; #PersianSociety; #ToleranceAndContradictions; #IranianConstitution
Identity in Times of Crisis, Part III: Identity and Language 2: The Quest of ‘Self’ Summary In this episode, I explore the concept of the self and how it has evolved across cultures and philosophies. Drawing from the framework proposed by psychologist Ulrich Neisser, I break down the term 'self' into five categories: Ecological, Interpersonal, Remembered, Private, and Conceptual. I also touch on the history of the self in linguistic anthropology, from its fusion with the clan in rituals to its moral and spiritual significance in Roman society, Christianity, and Protestant thought. Join me as we discuss how language and culture shape our understanding of identity. Share your thoughts, and don’t forget to tune in for the next episode! Keywords: #SelfConcept; #Identity; #UlrichNeisser; #EcologicalSelf; #InterpersonalSelf; #RememberedSelf; #PrivateSelf; #ConceptualSelf; #LinguisticAnthropology; #Persona; #RomanHistory; #Enlightenment; #CulturalIdentity; #PhilosophyOfSelf; #WesternThought; #IndividualVsSelf; #LockeanSelf; #Protestantism; #HumanExperience
Jews And Israel in Arab / Palestinian Intellectual Discourse Part IV The lecture provides a detailed historical overview focusing on key figures and events in Palestinian history, particularly emphasizing the emergence of nationalist ideas and responses to British imperialism and Zionist aspirations. It highlights figures like Haj Amin Al-Hussaini, who framed the struggle against Jews as a fight for Islamic honor and restoration. The Balfour Declaration and subsequent events like the San Remo Conference shaped perceptions among Palestinian elites, leading to growing nationalist sentiments and resistance movements. The Great Arab Revolt of 1936-1939, led by Al-Hussaini and ignited by religious ideologies, was brutally suppressed by the British, ultimately strengthening Jewish military capabilities. The lecture also touches on collaborations during World War II, reflecting complex geopolitical dynamics and underlying tensions. The narrative underscores a historical trajectory marked by resistance, strategic miscalculations, and the enduring impact on Palestinian identity and the struggle for self-determination. Bibliographical References 1. "The Israel-Palestine Conflict: Contested Histories" by NEIL CAPLAN - This book presents a balanced overview of the conflict, examining historical narratives from both Israeli and Palestinian perspectives. 2. "The Arab-Israeli Conflict: A History" by IAN J. BICKERTON and Carla L. Klausner - This book provides a detailed historical account of the Arab-Israeli conflict, discussing key events and developments from various perspectives. 3. "Palestine and Israel: A Challenge to Justice" by JOHN QUIGLEY - Quigley examines the legal aspects of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict, discussing international law and human rights issues. 4. "The Iron Wall: Israel and the Arab World" by Avi Shlaim - Shlaim, an Israeli historian, offers a critical analysis of Israel's foreign policy and its impact on the Arab-Israeli conflict. 5. "Israel and Palestine: Reappraisals, Revisions, Refutations" edited by AVI SHLAIM AND EUGENE ROGAN - This collection of essays brings together perspectives from Israeli and Palestinian scholars, offering diverse viewpoints on key issues related to the conflict. 6. Palestine and the Arab-Israeli Conflict: A History with Documents" by Charles D. Smith - This book provides a comprehensive historical overview of the conflict, focusing on Palestine's history and the roots of the Arab-Israeli conflict.
The lecture explores the Israeli-Arab conflict, tracing back to events like the Russian pogroms in the late 19th century that led to significant Jewish migration to the United States. Restrictive immigration laws reduced Jewish immigration to the U.S. by 1935. The subsequent discussion delves into post-World War II events, including the establishment of Israel in 1948 and the influx of Holocaust survivors into the IDF. The lecture also touches on Palestinian perspectives, highlighting tensions and conflicts leading up to the present day, emphasizing the complex historical narratives and ongoing challenges faced by both Israelis and Palestinians.
The lecture delves into a complex historical narrative surrounding Jewish experiences and the evolution of Zionism within the broader context of European and Russian history. It addresses the violent pogroms and discriminatory policies against Jews in Russia, particularly during the late 19th and early 20th centuries, which precipitated mass Jewish emigration to countries like the United States. The narrative highlights how the rise of communism, despite some Jewish involvement, was not a Jewish-led movement. The discussion further explores the impact of these historical events on the trajectory of Jewish migration and the development of Zionist ideology, particularly through figures like Theodor Herzl, who emphasized the urgent need for a Jewish homeland as a response to growing antisemitism and societal upheaval in Europe. The lecture underscores the multifaceted nature of Jewish history, emphasizing the complex interplay of socio-political factors that shaped Jewish identity and migration patterns during this turbulent period.
The lecture introduces a discussion on the intellectual narratives surrounding the Arab-Israeli conflict or Judeo-Arab conflict over the past century. It emphasizes the complexity of the topic, the need for attention due to numerous citations and references, and the expectation of hearing new perspectives. The goal is to shed light on this historical context and influence through scholarly analysis.
Problems of Linguistics, Part II: Chomskyan Revolution In this episode, we explored the profound impact of the Chomskyan revolution on linguistics, alongside the contributions of post-structuralist linguists who challenged traditional views. We delved into syntax, grammar, and how vivid language shapes our understanding of the world, all while making complex ideas accessible and engaging. Stay tuned for more in-depth discussions in future episodes, where we'll continue to unpack other schools of linguistics and their lasting influence! Keywords #Linguistics; #Syntax; #Grammar; #Humanities; #LanguageLearning; #Language; #LinguisticSchools; #SyntaxAndSemantics; #Verificationism; #NoamChomsky; #CarlHempel; #JamesSledd; #Voegelin; #TransformationalGenerativeGrammar; #OldGuard; #SyntacticStructures