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Ep. 88 - The Hubble Space Telescope - REMASTER
Update: 2024-08-12
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Astronomy Cast Ep. 88 - The Hubble Space Telescope - REMASTER By Fraser Cain & Dr. Pamela Gay From May 12, 2008. Our understanding of the cosmos has been revolutionized by the Hubble Space Telescope. The breathtaking familiar photos, like the Pillars of Creation, pale in comparison to the astounding amount of science data returned to Earth. Hubble’s getting old, though, serviced several times already, and due for another mission later this year. Let’s relive the historic observatory’s amazing life so far, and see what the future holds.
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Transcript
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>> Hey, Fraser Kane.
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I'm the publisher of University and with me is Dr.
00:01:32
Pamela Gay, a professor at Southern Illinois University Everett's Film.
00:01:36
Hey, Pamela.
00:01:37
>> Hey, Fraser, how are you doing?
00:01:39
>> Good.
00:01:39
A lot happier this week.
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>> Good.
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>> Yeah, yeah.
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All the sad episodes are gone and now it's time to move on to the happy stuff.
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>> Oh, I'm sure we'll find something else to be sad about.
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>> Well, later, later, we won't make it happen too often.
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But let's talk about the happiest place in space, which would be the Hubble Space Telescope.
00:01:57
So our understanding of the cosmos has been revolutionized by the Hubble Space Telescope, the breathtaking familiar photos like the pillars of creation, pale in comparison to the astounding amount of science data returned to Earth.
00:02:11
Hubble's getting old, though, serviced several times already and due for another mission later this year.
00:02:17
Let's relive the historic observatories amazing life so far and see what the future holds.
00:02:23
>> All right, we're going to take another break.
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And we're back.
00:02:31
>> You know, I just have this wonderful realization that Hubble is now of legal age and could vote.
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>> Perfect, next, and then what next year could drink?
00:02:40
Why is he in Canada?
00:02:42
>> It has a few years, but we'll have to do this.
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>> Yeah, all right.
00:02:47
>> Okay, well, let's go back to the history of Hubble.
00:02:52
Where did the idea of building an observatory in space?
00:02:57
How long has it been in the works for?
00:02:59
>> The idea of going into space with telescopes has been around since the 1920s.
00:03:03
Pretty much since we've first started to think about putting anything into space.
00:03:07
Our atmospheres, the one thing that sits between us and the stars, and anytime you can get a telescope above the atmosphere, you can improve the amount of science that you're able to do.
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>> Yeah, the atmosphere has dogged astronomers since the dawn of time.
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It is their worst enemy.
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That's except for maybe daylight.
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>> But at least in daylight, we can see the sun.
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So we've still got one star left.
00:03:34
>> Right, right, but boy, atmosphere has been awful.
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So yeah.
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>> And it blocks certain wavelengths entirely.
00:03:42
We can't see gamma rays on the surface of the planet.
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We can't see ultraviolet.
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We can't see infrared.
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There are all sorts of colors of light that our atmosphere just doesn't let through at all.
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So the only way we can see those colors is if we go into outer space.
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>> And so when did the concept for Hubble first happen?
00:04:00
>> Well, Liam Spitzer and about the 1940s, 1946 or so put forward the idea of let's have an extraterrestrial observatory.
00:04:10
And he basically did the whole, let's get where we can see infrared and ultraviolet, which are two things that the Hubble Space Telescope can do.
00:04:19
And he did the, let's get somewhere where the atmosphere isn't going to blur all of our images out.
00:04:24
And so the idea was put a fairly large size telescope on orbit and start looking at the things that we're currently blind to.
00:04:33
>> And so that is the infrared, the, what the x-rays, the stuff that's blocked by the atmosphere.
00:04:39
>> And today we have a whole suite of space telescopes that look at all these different colors.
00:04:45
Hubble was just the first of this suite of massive national observatories on orbit.
00:04:51
And it sees ultraviolet optical and infrared light.
00:04:55
>> And so when did work really get going on, Hubble?
00:04:58
>> Well, Hubble itself started to emerge as a plan in the 1960s.
00:05:05
We first did a couple of test cases, a couple of orbiting astronomical observatories.
00:05:11
The first one had a battery failure, but the second one was able to carry out some ultraviolet observations.
00:05:17
And when these two missions, or at least one of these two missions, became successful, we started looking for funding.
00:05:24
Well, not we, I wasn't born yet, the astronomical community started looking for funding to say, hey, let's go and put something significant in space.
00:05:34
So at the beginning of the 1970s, a couple of different committees were put together because that's how we do everything is in committee.
00:05:42
And they started looking for funding, looking for ways to do it, speccing out what we wanted to do, originally it was slated to be about three meters.
00:05:49
And I got shrank down to 2.4 meters so that it could fit inside the space shuttle's cargo area.
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And we also went in and we found partners to help us pay for all of this.
00:05:59
We have the European Space Agency, Canada, built the wonderful robotic arm.
00:06:04
And as we built this coalition and raised money from Congress, the whole project took shape.
00:06:10
And it was originally hoped that it would launch somewhere around 1983.
00:06:17
But as always happens with massive telescope projects and massive satellite projects delays ended up taking place.
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Alright, we're going to take another break.
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And we're back.
00:06:33
So when did it finally launch?
00:06:35
1990.
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So seven years late.
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Seven years late.
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Now it could have launched much earlier than that except in 1986, we had the Challenger disaster.
00:06:47
Yeah, that was a bad year for launching things into the space.
00:06:50
Yeah, so prior to the Challenger disaster, we've been on target to have the quickest turnaround, the most launches, all these historic, space shuttle, space shuttle,
00:07:00
wonderful things were slated to happen.
00:07:03
But then we lost the Challenger and the Hubble Space Telescope was slated to go up shortly after that.
00:07:10
And instead it got put into storage to the tune of $6 million per month to keep it the way you need to keep a telescope in a nitrogen rich plane room where no dust was going to get into it where nothing was going to have bad chemical reactions with stuff in the atmosphere.
00:07:30
It was very expensive storage, but it did allow us to fix a few things that were faulty with the Hubble that we hadn't known about.
00:07:37
Yeah, and missed one major flaw.
00:07:40
That would be an understatement.
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Okay, so finally the Hubble launched in 1990 up into space.
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Here we go, the most sensitive telescope ever built by humanity in space away from the atmosphere.
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How did it go?
00:08:03
It took the ugliest pictures anyone had ever seen and many astronomers cried.
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So what was the problem?
00:08:12
Well, it has this mirror that was supposed to be ground down to amazingly precise layers.
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We're talking a hair would be a huge mountain on the surface of the mirror.
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They needed the surface to be perfect to within about 2.3 microns.
00:08:29
And it was in the center of the mirror.
00:08:31
The problem was that the outskirts of the mirror weren't polished correctly.
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The curvature of the mirror was wrong.
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This was done by a company called Perkin Elmer that NASA had been having issues with.
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Some of the major reasons that the telescope was originally delayed was the amount of time it was taking to grind, grind, grind this mirror.
00:08:51
This was back in the days before we were spending casting mirrors.
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And when they checked the surface of the mirror, they checked it with three different devices.
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Two of those three said, "Uh-uh, doesn't work.
00:09:05
Try again."
00:09:07
The third one, the one that they used to check the surfacing most of the time, said it was perfect.
00:09:13
Now, instead of saying, "Wait, why are two of them saying it's bad and one of them saying it's good?"
00:09:19
Perkin Elmer's decided, "Well, we're only going to trust the one that we used most of the time to have been correct," which was really a stupid decision to make.
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Sounds like a classic mistake in science, right?
00:09:33
Trust the data that says what you want to hear and ignore the data that is saying something that you don't want to hear.
00:09:39
Yeah, how many drug studies have gone without?
00:09:42
Well, what ended up happening was the outer part of the mirror.
00:09:45
They don't it on the outskirts of this circular mirror.
00:09:51
They focused the light into a completely different place than the inner part of the mirror.
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And if you were looking at a star, if you were looking at some sort of a point source, this wasn't too big of a problem because you still got a nice, friendly point source in the exact center.
00:10:07
But the problem was when you went to look at extended objects, you just ended up with this really nasty image that was very hard to with computers take apart and figure out,
00:10:18
"Okay, this light belonged here, this light belonged here," and figure out exactly what was going on.
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They tried, they had software, a fill actually worked with some of it, but it wasn't pretty.
00:10:31
Now the thing is, though, you can use lenses to bend light wrong or right.
00:10:37
And having bent it the wrong way, you can correct it using a second lens.
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And so once they figured out what was wrong and once they figured out where everything went so terribly wrong, they were able to go and essentially build glasses for the Hubble Space Telescope and go back and fix the problem with new instruments that took out this error that was created by the outer edges of the mirror.
00:11:02
And this is one of the great advantages of the Hubble Space Telescope and its orbit.
00:11:06
Hubble was launched into an or it was launched from the Space Shuttle, which only flies a few hundred kilometers above the surface of the Earth, and Hubble was launched into that orbit with the whole goal that shuttles could come back and service it from time to time,
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install new detectors, fix failing gyros, and just sort of keep the whole telescope running almost as if an observatory on Earth you would go in and make changes and fixes and upgrades and so on.
00:11:39
So this is the wonderful outcome of that decision to make the telescope serviceable was, yeah, they could launch up just a couple of years later with corrective lens,
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install it, and fix the problem.
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And this actually goes to showing one of the reasons that astronauts are really useful.
00:12:00
They're great construction workers.
00:12:02
They can do things that you just can't do with robotic arms because they can be creative and they come fully gimbled, which it costs a lot more to do in a robotic arm.
00:12:13
The corrections that they put in for some of the instruments weren't things the Hubble Space Telescope was originally designed for.
00:12:23
The telescope wasn't designed with the plan of, oh, it's going to have faulty optics, we're going to need to put in co-star corrective optics for the Space Telescope axial replacement.
00:12:31
This is a crazy instrument that went in the optical train in a place that they weren't planning to have to put an instrument actually to pull out one of the plan instruments,
00:12:41
the faint object spectrograph in order to be able to fit this thing in.
00:12:46
And the astronauts could figure out how to do it.
00:12:48
In some cases, these guys have their arms up to the shoulder, crammed into the Space Telescope, and they're reaching for things that they know where they are because they've trained so hard,
00:13:00
and they're basically feeling around the same way you might replace something under your sink that you can't see.
00:13:05
And they're doing all of this while wearing astronaut gloves and while knowing that if they catch the corner of their space suit on the sharp corner of something inside the Space Telescope that they could shred it and die.
00:13:17
Yeah, you can just imagine the amount of training.
00:13:20
They've done this maneuver many, many, many times in a simulation on Earth and in a pool in their space suit just for the moment when they're up in space and they have to do it for real.
00:13:31
They get really good at it.
00:13:34
So in 1993, the first shuttle servicing mission went up and they put in this co-star instrument that corrected the optics for some of the side instruments.
00:13:45
The light comes in, hits the mirror, goes through co-star and goes off to the places it needs to go.
00:13:50
And they also built some of the instruments with the corrective optics built into them.
00:13:54
So the wide field planetary camera, for instance, it was built to be able to see things in the ultraviolet and it incorporated corrective optics directly into this original instrument.
00:14:05
So they've gotten creative with, well, let's figure out new ways to make Hubble work better and to incorporate the corrections we need into the instruments we built.
00:14:15
All right, we are going to take another break.
00:14:20
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And we're back.
00:15:56
So now, have the corrections completely resolved the problem if Hubble had gone up with perfect optics?
00:16:04
Is it as good with the corrections as if it had been perfect?
00:16:07
It's in terms of focus as good as it would have been.
00:16:12
But with every optical surface, you're going to lose a little bit of light.
00:16:17
So the total amount of light that it's able to get from the front of the telescope to an instrument is lightly diminished, but it's not a huge amount.
00:16:25
I have to admit, I don't have the numbers in front of me, but the times that I've seen them, I always sort of went, oh, yeah, that's not that bad.
00:16:32
It's okay.
00:16:33
Right.
00:16:33
So you've got it going through a lens and that just that has to some of the photons get absorbed by the lens and they never make it to the instrument.
00:16:43
And they get reflected off.
00:16:45
We've all looked at someone who's wearing sunglasses.
00:16:46
Part of the reason that the light isn't getting to their eyes isn't just because the dark lenses are absorbing some of the light, but it's also because they're reflecting some of the light.
00:16:57
When we look at windows and we see reflections off of windows, that's light that's not getting into the room beyond.
00:17:03
So these reflections, which you have no matter how many nice great overcoding you have, they have an effect, but it's a small, small effect.
00:17:13
All right.
00:17:13
Let's talk about some of the other upgrades that have happened to the telescope since then.
00:17:17
Well, it's gone through a whole series of different instruments and in fact, it's even repaired itself a few times.
00:17:22
There was originally an instrument called Nick Moss.
00:17:27
It was designed to be able to do spectroscopy and imaging in the near infrared, great instrument, but it has to be kept cool because infrared light is light that you get from anything that's warm.
00:17:40
And if the instrument is warm, the infrared light, the instrument is giving off.
00:17:44
We'll blind it from seeing any of the infrared light that's coming from distant objects.
00:17:50
And the infrared is one of the most important colors to astronomy.
00:17:54
The most distant objects in the universe as their light travels across the universe to reach us.
00:18:00
It's getting redshifted.
00:18:01
It's getting stretched out both by the fact that the object that's coming from is moving away from us due to the expansion of the universe.
00:18:09
It's getting stretched out, which is a different type of redshift by the expansion of the universe.
00:18:13
And these two different factors add up to take the light from these distant objects and transform it from where it might have started in the ultraviolet or other bright,
00:18:24
blueish colors and have moved it out into the red and the infrared where we can't see it on the surface of the planet.
00:18:31
That's why the next major space telescope, the James Webb, is designed as an infrared.
00:18:37
It's going to be able to see the most distant objects which have all been shifted out to the red end of the spectrum.
00:18:46
And this is the wavelength that the spitzer space telescope works in.
00:18:50
Get used to infrared.
00:18:52
Yeah, it's where all the cool kids are going to play science.
00:18:56
The Hubble Space Telescope was the first telescope able to see out into the 0.8 micron, the 2.5 micron really long red wavelengths.
00:19:08
And it was the first to give us glimpses of what early deformed, not quite pulled together galaxies looked like.
00:19:17
Unfortunately, though, the instrument shifted and it ended up touching something else and it blew through its coolant trying to cool off not just itself,
00:19:28
but also the heat that it was getting from what it was touching.
00:19:31
And so initially it had a much shortened life, but during a subsequent servicing mission, they re-cooled Nick Moss,
00:19:41
gave it new coolant, and we're able to resurrect this instrument.
00:19:45
And it's actually a very important instrument because it was one of the ones that was used to first determine that they're supermassive black holes in the centers of galaxies.
00:19:55
And then there is another servicing mission coming up.
00:19:59
Oh, yeah, we've had four so far and now we're about to move on to the fifth, which is actually called the fourth, but that's the way NASA numbers things.
00:20:09
We went servicing mission one, two, three, a, three, b, and now four.
00:20:14
And here we're going to install a new wide field planetary camera.
00:20:18
If you've ever looked at a Hubble image that was really weird shaped where it looked like a corner had been snapped off of it, that would have been from one of the wide field planetary cameras.
00:20:28
We've gone through several generations of these that have been progressively getting more sensitive.
00:20:34
So they're putting a new one of these in.
00:20:36
It's a new high resolution wide field camera that should allow us to take images that span from the ultraviolet all the way out into the near infrared.
00:20:46
They're also putting a new ultra sensitive ultraviolet spectroscope on that will help us gain more understandings of part of the universe that we don't get to see through our atmosphere.
00:20:58
They're also going to work on repairing this spectrograph and updating the advanced camera for surveys.
00:21:05
So there, there's some repairs, some replacements.
00:21:09
And most importantly, they're also going to be replacing the gyroscopes and the Hubble space telescope.
00:21:16
The gyroscopes are in some ways the weakest link on this telescope.
00:21:20
If you lose the gyroscopes, you lose steering and it's really hard to use a telescope that you can't point.
00:21:27
And just to explain that the gyroscopes, these are spinning wheels inside the telescope, which depending on which of the wheels spin,
00:21:37
it causes a counter spin on the telescope itself.
00:21:41
And this is very commonly used in most spacecraft now, is they have these gyros.
00:21:46
The gyros spin and if you've ever held a gyroscope, if you've done this experiment, you hold a gyroscope or you hold like a bike wheel and you turn it and then you sit on something that can spin as you turn the gyro one way or the other,
00:21:59
you'll spin in the opposite direction.
00:22:01
And so with two gyroscopes, they can, that are perpendicular, they can make the telescope spin in any direction without having to have like thrusters.
00:22:13
So they can have solar panels which gather electricity or gather power and then use the power to turn the gyroscopes and the gyroscopes will allow the telescope to spin around and aim at different targets and track targets and stuff like that.
00:22:28
So without the gyroscopes, Hubble and any of these space telescopes can't see anything and that's the biggest disasters when these gyroscope.
00:22:36
And the gyroscopes don't work alone, there's actually flywheels as well that when they spin up the flywheels, if you get this flywheel spinning clockwise, the Hubble space telescope will actually rotate counterclockwise.
00:22:48
And this is another way of getting the system pointed and reoriented a little bit more effectively, but the gyroscopes also help tell them where they're pointed.
00:22:56
They're sensitive to the space telescope is rotating, I sense this rotation, I need to do something to fix this rotation.
00:23:05
And so there's a lot of different things working together, there's the fine guidance system that aligns on stars, there's the flywheels that they use for bulk motions, there's the gyroscopes.
00:23:14
And it went into orbit with six gyroscopes, the original plan being they'd use three at a given time and hold three in reserves.
00:23:21
When they got down to two of them were broken they decided, okay, let's see how we use the system with only two gyroscopes and two in reserve.
00:23:29
And we're just sort of hoping everything keeps going until the August servicing mission and then they're going to put six brand new ones in.
00:23:36
And one of the sad things they're also going to do in the servicing mission is they're going to attach to the Hubble space telescope.
00:23:44
Basically a way for a robotic mission to go up and grab a lawn to Hubble and steer it through the atmosphere and help it commit suicide someday in the future.
00:23:54
And this was never planned, I mean it's funny because they had expected I guess that Hubble would eventually crash back down to earth through the atmosphere.
00:24:04
Well, even before that, the original plan was they'd launch Hubble in the space shuttle, carried up, grab it periodically, bring it down to earth,
00:24:15
do what they needed, take it back up.
00:24:17
And that got ditched fairly quickly and they figured out how to do on orbit repairs.
00:24:23
And then, well, after Challenger, it was also the, you know, let's revisit safety and is it safe to land with something the size of a school bus in the back of the space shuttle.
00:24:37
The space shuttle has never actually brought something that big back down other than they had a space lap with the Europeans built that they took up a couple of times.
00:24:46
It already flies like a brick.
00:24:58
Yeah.
00:24:58
And so for safety reasons, the original plan of bringing Hubble back down and sticking it in the Smithsonian was taken away.
00:24:59
And then there was the, yeah, maybe we should crash it through the ocean and then there's the, no, no, no, let's boost it into a higher orbit.
00:25:06
Not that I know what you do with it when it's in a higher orbit and dead, but it's always hard to watch a friend die and Hubble's been around for a long time.
00:25:16
It's been the heart and soul of many different careers and it's hard to imagine that someday we're going to take it on a control destruction path and plunge it through the atmosphere so that it's bits fall into the ocean.
00:25:31
But that's probably what's going to happen someday.
00:25:33
How does Hubble stack up to the latest technology?
00:25:36
Because I think that a lot of people have this emotional response to it as one of the greatest pieces of scientific engineering,
00:25:46
one of the greatest instruments ever built for the purposes of science.
00:25:50
You could place that side by side with any of the best particle accelerators, you know, genetic experiments.
00:25:56
You name it.
00:25:57
Hubble has given us some of the most important discoveries in cosmology and astronomy.
00:26:04
And I know that when NASA was starting to say, well, maybe we aren't going to bring Hubble, maybe we're just going to let it crash and that's kind of that for Hubble.
00:26:14
They already had the work going on for the James Webb telescope, which is going to be a monster way bigger, way more powerful.
00:26:21
It's invisible light.
00:26:22
I mean, it's definitely not the successor to Hubble.
00:26:25
It's going to be an infrared observatory.
00:26:28
But people had a very emotional response, you know, save Hubble.
00:26:31
No matter what, you know, we've got to keep that telescope going.
00:26:35
But I wonder financially, if you could take the same amount of money that was being spent on a repair mission and just built a new telescope and launched that instead with the latest greatest technology,
00:26:47
would you get more bang for your buck?
00:26:50
It's unclear if you'd get more bang for your buck, because at a certain level, you have to restart a lot of the, oh, we haven't built one of those in 20 years programs and redesigned things.
00:27:01
And so there's R&D that goes into it.
00:27:04
And there's also the risk of well, a burden, the pot versus one that you have to go out and catch, you go with the one that you already have in the pot.
00:27:13
Hubble is launched.
00:27:14
It is functioning.
00:27:16
It's in a stable orbit.
00:27:17
All of these are good things.
00:27:20
Every time you launch a mission, you hold your breath and hope that it's going to live and not all of them do.
00:27:28
And so when you do the risk assessment, it's better to go out, catch Hubble, stick new instruments in it than to just build a new 2.4 meter telescope every few years.
00:27:40
Now, if you could guarantee each of those new telescopes would be 100% functional and would launch successfully, then the equation changes and it might make more sense to just build a new one periodically.
00:27:52
There are capabilities that were just going to lose when Hubble's de-orbitant.
00:27:58
It's ultraviolet abilities.
00:28:00
We don't have something else to match.
00:28:03
Are there ultraviolet observatories?
00:28:05
Hubble has a unique set of instruments.
00:28:07
It's spectrograph that it's going to have.
00:28:10
It's going to allow us to see things that we can't see.
00:28:13
And I don't think there's currently a working ultraviolet telescope on orbit.
00:28:19
With the same capability.
00:28:22
Yeah.
00:28:22
And so we're also not going to have the visible light capabilities anymore.
00:28:29
And this is where the emotions get in.
00:28:31
If you look at Jupiter through a backyard telescope, you see fuzzy blob with stripes.
00:28:38
Sometimes fuzzy blob with stripes and red dot, or maybe two red dots.
00:28:43
When you look at Jupiter through a ground based telescope, you see the same thing, but now with more details.
00:28:50
When you look at it with the Hubble Space Telescope, you're then taking that image and giving more details to it.
00:28:56
But you can see how that Hubble Space Telescope image and the image that you see with your eyes are the exact same thing.
00:29:04
There's no guesswork at play.
00:29:06
Well, you look at Jupiter in the X-ray and you see weird stuff at the pole.
00:29:11
You look at Jupiter in the infrared and you see something entirely different.
00:29:18
And so the emotions come from looking at Hubble images and going, wow, that's what I would see with my eyes.
00:29:25
If only I were close enough, or if only I were on orbit, or if only my telescope was big enough, that's what I would see with my eyes.
00:29:34
Or if only I could aim my eyes at something for three straight days.
00:29:38
Every photon that arrived.
00:29:41
Right.
00:29:42
So we're losing that visible.
00:29:44
We're losing that ultraviolet.
00:29:45
But the questions that are out there waiting for us in the infrared universe, the questions that Spitzer is just not quite big enough to answer.
00:29:54
James Webb is going to go out there and chase down the origins of galaxies, chase down planets around other stars.
00:30:02
It's going to give us a glimpse into a whole no part of the universe that Hubble just can't get to.
00:30:08
All right.
00:30:08
Well, I think we're going to have to do a whole separate show just on the James Webb telescope as well.
00:30:15
I go out it's going to be, you know, another few years before it even launches.
00:30:18
So maybe we can give people a preview of what it's going to be.
00:30:21
So that would be great.
00:30:22
Well, and we have the glassed gamma ray large areas, an optic telescope that's going to be going up soon.
00:30:28
And we might be able to sneak in a show about that as well if it launches healthy.
00:30:32
There are so many amazing missions that are going to be going up over the next few months.
00:30:37
So that'd be great.
00:30:39
Okay.
00:30:40
Well, I think that cover the Hubble Space Telescope is one of the situations where I mean the greatest part is the pictures.
00:30:46
But since this is a podcast, we can go to our website.
00:30:51
Yeah, you have to go to our website and get links to pictures or, you know, go to universe, come to universe today and we've got lots of pictures from Hubble all the time.
00:30:59
So, but this it was great to just tell the story.
00:31:01
So thanks a lot for that, Pamela.
00:31:03
And before we let everyone go, I just want to remind everyone that Fraser, Phil, myself and many of our friends.
00:31:11
We're all going to be in St.
00:31:12
Louis, the first week of June, May 31 through June 4th.
00:31:17
And we'd love it if you guys came down.
00:31:19
There are many events open to the public and we'd love to meet you.
00:31:23
And it's your donations that make us doing this possible, that make all of this travel possible.
00:31:28
So please help make this stuff continue to happen by fleshing out our pornist donations ban and giving it some more money.
00:31:35
Good advice.
00:31:36
All right.
00:31:36
Well, thanks, Pamela.
00:31:38
We'll talk to you next week.
00:31:41
Astronomycast is a joint product of universe today and the Planetary Science Institute.
00:31:50
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00:31:55
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00:31:57
But please credit it to our hosts, Fraser Kane and Dr.
00:32:00
Pamela Gay.
00:32:01
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00:32:35
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